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Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar

PART SECOND --- SYNTAX

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

SECTION: #268. The study of formal grammar arose at a late period in the history of language, and dealt with language as a fully developed product. Accordingly the terms of Syntax correspond to the logical habits of thought and forms of expression that had grown up at such a period, and have a logical as well as a merely grammatical meaning. But a developed syntactical structure is not essential to the expression of thought. A form of words--like o puerum pulchrum! oh! beautiful boy--expresses a thought and might even be called a sentence; though it does not logically declare anything, and does not, strictly speaking, make what is usually called a sentence at all.

At a very early period of spoken language, word-forms were no doubt significant in themselves, without inflections, and constituted the whole of language,--just as to a child the name of some familiar object will stand for all he can say about it. At a somewhat later stage, such uninflected words put side by side made a rudimentary form of proposition: as a child might say fire bright; horse run. With this began the first form of logical distinction, that of Subject and Predicate; but as yet there was no distinction in form between noun and verb, and no fixed distinction in function. At a later stage forms were differentiated in function and--by various processes of composition which cannot be fully traced--Inflections were developed. These served to express person, tense, case, and other grammatical relations, and we have true Parts of Speech.

Not until language reached this last stage was there any fixed limit to the association of words, or any rule prescribing the manner in which they should be combined. But gradually, by usage, particular forms came to be limited to special functions (as nouns, verbs, adjectives), and fixed customs arose of combining words into what we now call Sentences. These customs are in part the result of general laws or modes of thought (logic), resulting from our habits of mind (General Grammar); and in part are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a given language (Particular Grammar), and making what is called the Syntax of that language.

In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost exclusively accustomed, the unit of expression is the Sentence: that is, the completed statement, with its distinct Subject and Predicate. Originally sentences were simple. But two simple sentence-forms may be used together, without the grammatical subordination of either, to express a more complex form of thought than could be denoted by one alone. This is parataxis (arrangement side by side). Since, however, the two sentences, independent in form, were in fact used to express parts of a complex whole and were therefore mutually dependent, the sense of unity found expression in conjunctions, which denoted the grammatical subordination of the one to the other. This is hypotaxis (arrangement under, subordination). In this way, through various stages of development, which correspond to our habitual modes of thought, there were produced various forms of complex sentences. Thus, to express the complex idea I beseech you to pardon me, the two simple sentence-forms quaeso and ignoscas were used side by side, quaeso ignoscas; then the feeling of grammatical subordination found expression in a conjunction, quaeso ut ignoscas, forming a complex sentence. The results of these processes constitute the subject-matter of Syntax.

1 The second part generally has its usual inflection; but, as this kind of composition is in fact older than inflection, the compounded stem sometimes has an inflection of its own (as, cornicen, - cinis; lucifer, - feri; iudex, - dicis), from stems not occurring in Latin. Especially do compound adjectives in Latin take the form of i-stems: as, animus, exanimis; norma, abnormis (see Sect: 73). In composition, stems regularly have their uninflected form: as, igni- spicium, divining by fire. But in o- and a-stems the final vowel of the stem appears as i-, as in ali-pes (from ala, stem ala-); and i- is so common a termination of compounded stems, that it is often added to stems which do not properly have it: as, flori-comus, flower-crowned (from flos, flor-is, and coma, hair).

SECTION: #269. A Sentence is a form of words which contains a Statement, a Question, an Exclamation, or a Command.

A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a Declarative Sentence: as,-- canis currit, the dog runs.

A sentence in the form of a Question is called an Interrogative Sentence: as,-- canisne currit? does the dog run?

A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an Exclamatory Sentence: as,-- quam celeriter currit canis! how fast the dog runs!

A sentence in the form of a Command, an Exhortation, or an Entreaty is called an Imperative Sentence: as,--i, curre per Alpis, go, run across the Alps; currat canis, let the dog run.

.Subject and .Predicate

SECTION: #270. Every sentence consists of a Subject and a Predicate.

The Subject of a sentence is the person or thing spoken of. The Predicate is that which is said of the Subject.

Thus in canis currit, the dog runs, canis is the subject, and currit the predicate.

SECTION: #271. The Subject of a sentence is usually a Noun or Pronoun, or some word or group of words used as a Noun:

equites ad Caesarem venerunt, the cavalry came to Caesar.

humanum est errare, to err is human.

quaeritur num mors malum sit. the question is whether death is an evil.

But in Latin the subject is often implied in the termination of the verb:

sede-mus, we sit. curri-tis, you run. inqui-t, says he.

SECTION: #272. The Predicate of a sentence may be a Verb (as in canis currit, the dog runs), or it may consist of some form of sum and a Noun or Adjective which describes or defines the subject (as in Caesar consul erat, Caesar was consul).

Such a noun or adjective is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective, and the verb sum is called the Copula (i.e. the connective).

Thus in the example given, Caesar is the subject, consul the predicate noun, and erat the copula (see Sect: 283).

.Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

SECTION: #273. Verbs are either Transitive or Intransitive.

1. A Transitive Verb has or requires a direct object to complete its sense (see Sect: 274): as,-- fratrem cecidit, he slew his brother.

2. An Intransitive Verb admits of no direct object to complete its sense:

cado, I fall (or am falling). sol lucet, the sun shines (or is shining).

NOTE 1.--Among transitive verbs Factitive Verbs are sometimes distinguished as a separate class. These state an act which produces the thing expressed by the word which completes their sense. Thus mensam fecit, he made a table (which was not in existence before), is distinguished from mensam percussit, he struck a table (which already existed).

NOTE 2.--A transitive verb may often be used absolutely, i.e. without any object expressed: as,-- arat, he is ploughing, where the verb does not cease to be transitive because the object is left indefinite, as we see by adding,-- quid, what? agrum suum, his land.

NOTE 3.--Transitive and Intransitive Verbs are often called Active and Neuter Verbs respectively.

.Object

SECTION: #274. The person or thing immediately affected by the action of a verb is called the Direct Object.

A person or thing indirectly affected by the action of a verb is called the Indirect Object.

Only transitive verbs can have a Direct Object; but an Indirect Object may be used with both transitive and intransitive verbs (Sect: 362, 366):

pater vocat filium (direct object), the father calls his son.

mihi (ind. obj.) agrum (dir. obj.) ostendit, he showed me a field.

mihi (ind. obj.) placet, it is pleasing to me.

NOTE.--The distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs is not a fixed dis tinction, for most transitive verbs may be used intransitively, and many verbs usually intransitive may take a direct object and so become transitive (Sect: 388. a).

With certain verbs, the Genitive, Dative, or Ablative is used where the English, from a difference in meaning, requires the direct object (Objective):

hominem video, I see the man (Accusative).

homini servio, I serve the man (Dative, see Sect: 367).

hominis misereor, I pity the man (Genitive, see Sect: 354. a).

homine amico utor, I treat the man as a friend (Ablative, see Sect: 410).

Many verbs transitive in Latin are rendered into English by an intransitive verb with a preposition:

petit aprum, he aims at the boar.

laudem affectat, he strives after praise.

curat valetudinem, he takes care of his health.

meum casum doluerunt, they grieved at my misfortune.

ridet nostram amentiam (Quinct. 55) , he laughs at our stupidity.

SECTION: #275. When a transitive verb is changed from the Active to the Passive voice, the Direct Object becomes the Subject and is put in the Nominative case:

Active: pater filium vocat, the father calls his son.

Passive: filius a patre vocatur, the son is called by his father.

Active: lunam et stellas videmus, we see the moon and the stars.

Passive: luna et stellae videntur, the moon and stars are seen (appear).

.Modification

SECTION: #276. A Subject or a Predicate may be modified by a single word, or by a group of words (a phrase or a clause).

The modifying word or group of words may itself be modified in the same way.

A single modifying word may be an adjective, an adverb, an appositive (Sect: 282), or the oblique case of a noun.

Thus in the sentence vir fortis patienter fert, a brave man endures patiently, the adjective fortis, brave, modifies the subject vir, man, and the adverb patienter, patiently, modifies the predicate fert, endures.

The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word to which it belongs.

Thus in the sentence pueri patrem video, I see the boy's father, the genitive pueri limits patrem (by excluding any other father).

SECTION: #277. A Phrase is a group of words, without subject or predicate of its own, which may be used as an Adjective or an Adverb.

Thus in the sentence vir fuit summa nobilitate, he was a man of the highest nobility, the words summa nobilitate, of the highest nobility, are used for the adjective nobilis, noble (or nobilissimus, very noble), and are called an Adjective Phrase.

So in the sentence magna celeritate venit, he came with great speed, the words magna celeritate, with great speed, are used for the adverb celeriter, quickly (or celerrime, very quickly), and are called an Adverbial Phrase.

.Clauses and Sentences

SECTION: #278. Sentences are either Simple or Compound.

1. A sentence containing a single statement is called a Simple Sentence.

2. A sentence containing more than one statement is called a Compound Sentence, and each single statement in it is called a Clause.

If one statement is simply added to another, the clauses are said to be Coordinate. They are usually connected by a Coordinate Conjunction (Sect: 223. a); but this is sometimes omitted:

divide et impera, divide and control. But,--

veni, vidi, vici, I came, I saw, I conquered.

If one statement modifies another in any way, the modifying clause is said to be Subordinate, and the clause modified is called the Main Clause.

This subordination is indicated by some connecting word, either a Subordinate Conjunction (Sect: 223. b) or a Relative:

oderint dum metuant, let them hate so long as they fear.

servum misit quem secum habebat, he sent the slave whom he had with him.

A sentence containing one or more subordinate clauses is sometimes called Complex.

NOTE.--A subordinate clause may itself be modified by other subordinate clauses.

SECTION: #279. Subordinate Clauses are of various kinds.

A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb is called a Relative Clause:

Mosa profluit ex monte Vosego, qui est in finibus Lingonum (B. G. 4.10) , the Meuse rises in the Vosges mountains, which are on the borders of the Lingones.

For Relative Pronouns (or Relative Adverbs) serving to connect independent sentences, see Sect: 308. f.

A clause introduced by an Adverb of Time is called a Temporal Clause:

cum tacent, clamant (Cat. 1.21) , while they are silent, they cry aloud.

homines aegri morbo gravi, cum iactantur aestu febrique, si aquam gelidam biberint, primo relevari videntur ( id. 1.31), men suffering with a severe sickness, when they are tossing with the heat of fever, if they drink cold water, seem at first to be relieved.

A clause containing a Condition, introduced by si, if (or some equivalent expression), is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence containing a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence.

Thus, si aquam gelidam biberint, primo relevari videntur (in b, above) is a Conditional Sentence, and si ... biberint is a Conditional Clause.

A clause expressing the Purpose of an action is called a Final Clause:

edo ut vivam, I eat to live (that I may live).

misit legatos qui dicerent, he sent ambassadors to say (who should say).

A clause expressing the Result of an action is called a Consecutive Clause:

tam longe aberam ut non viderem, I was too far away to see (so far away that I did not see).

.AGREEMENT

SECTION: #280. A word is said to agree with another when it is required by usage to be in the same Gender, Number, Case, or Person.

The following are the general forms of agreement, sometimes called the Four Concords:

1. The agreement of the Noun in Apposition or as Predicate (Sect: 281-284).

2. The agreement of the Adjective with its Noun (Sect: 286).

3. The agreement of the Relative with its Antecedent (Sect: 305).

4. The agreement of the Finite Verb with its Subject (Sect: 316).

A word sometimes takes the gender or number, not of the word with which it should regularly agree, but of some other word implied in that word.

This use is called Synesis, or constructio ad sensum (construction according to sense).

.AGREEMENT OF NOUNS

SECTION: #281. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in Case.

The descriptive noun may be either an Appositive (Sect: 282) or a Predicate noun (Sect: 283).

Apposition

SECTION: #282. A noun used to describe another, and standing in the same part of the sentence with the noun described, is called an Appositive, and is said to be in apposition:

externus timor, maximum concordiae vinculum, iungebat animos (Liv. 2.39) , fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of harmony, united their hearts. [Here the appositive belongs to the subject.]

quattuor hic primum omen equos vidi; ( Aen. 3.537), I saw here four horses, the first omen. [Here both nouns are in the predicate.]

litteras Graecas senex didici; (Cat. M. 26), I learned Greek when an old man. [Here senex, though in apposition with the subject of didici, really states something further: viz., the time, condition, etc., of the act (Predicate Apposition).]

Words expressing parts may be in apposition with a word including the parts, or vice versa (Partitive Apposition):

Nec P. Popilius neque Q. Metellus, clarissimi viri atque amplissimi, vim tribuniciam sustinere potuerunt (Clu. 95) , neither Publius Popilius nor Quintus Metellus, [both of them] distinguished and honorable men, could withstand the power of the tribunes.

Gnaeus et Publius Scipiones, Cneius and Publius Scipio (the Scipios).

An Adjective may be used as an appositive:

ea Sex. Roscium inopem recepit (Rosc. Am. 27) , she received Sextus Roscius in his poverty (needy).

An appositive generally agrees with its noun in Gender and Number when it can:

sequuntur naturam, optimam ducem (Lael. 19) , they follow nature, the best guide.

omnium doctrinarum inventrices Athenas (De Or. 1.13) , Athens, discoverer of all learning.

NOTE.--But such agreement is often impossible: as,-- olim truncus eram ficulnus, inutile lignum (Hor. S. 1.8.1) , I once was a fig-tree trunk, a useless log.

A common noun in apposition with a Locative (Sect: 427) is put in the Ablative, with or without the preposition in:

Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe (Arch. 4) , at Antioch, once a famous city.

Albae constiterunt, in urbe munita; ( Phil. 4.6), they halted at Alba, a fortified town.

For a Genitive in apposition with a Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective, see Sect: 302.

For the so-called Appositional Genitive, see Sect: 343. d.

For the construction with nomen est, see Sect: 373. a.

.Predicate Noun or Adjective

SECTION: #283. With sum and a few other intransitive or passive verbs, a noun or an adjective describing or defining the subject may stand in the predicate. This is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective.

The verb sum is especially common in this construction, and when so used is called the copula (i.e. connective).

Other verbs which take a predicate noun or adjective are the socalled copulative verbs signifying to become, to be made, to be named, to appear, and the like.

SECTION: #284. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after the copula sum or a copulative verb is in the same case as the Subject:

pacis semper auctor fui; ( Lig. 28), I have always been an adviser of peace.

quae pertinacia quibusdam, eadem aliis constantia videri potest (Marc. 31) , what may seem obstinacy to some, may seem to others consistency.

eiius mortis sedetis ultores (Mil. 79) , you sit as avengers of his death.

habeatur vir egregius Paulus (Cat. 4.21) , let Paulus be regarded as an extraordinary man.

ego patronus exstiti; ( Rosc. Am. 5), I have come forward as an advocate.

dicit non omnis bonos esse beatos, he says that not all good men are happy.

A predicate noun referring to two or more singular nouns is in the plural:

consules creantur Caesar et Servilius (B. C. 3.1) , Caesar and Servilius are elected consuls.

Sum in the sense of exist makes a complete predicate without a predicate noun or adjective. It is then called the substantive verb:

sunt viri fortes, there are (exist) brave men. [Cf. vixere fortes ante Agamemnona ( Hor. Od. 4.9.25), brave men lived before Agamemnon.]

For Predicate Accusative and Predicate Ablative, see Sect: 392, 415. N.

.AGREEMENT OF .ADJECTIVES

Attributive and Predicate Adjectives

SECTION: #285. Adjectives are either Attributive or Predicate.

1. An Attributive Adjective simply qualifies its noun without the intervention of a verb or participle, expressed or implied: as, -- bonus imperator, a good commander; stellae lucidae, bright stars; verbum Graecum, a Greek word.

2. All other adjectives are called Predicate Adjectives:

stellae lucidae erant, the stars were bright.

sit Scipio clarus (Cat. 4.21) , let Scipio be illustrious.

homines mitis reddidit (Inv. 1.2) , has rendered men mild.

tria praedia Capitoni propria traduntur (Rosc. Am. 21) , three farms are handed over to Capito as his own.

consilium ceperunt plenum sceleris ( id. 28), they formed a plan full of villany.

NOTE.--A predicate adjective may be used with sum or a copulative verb (Sect: 283); it may have the construction of a predicate accusative after a verb of naming, calling, or the like (Sect: 393. N.); or it may be used in apposition like a noun (Sect: 282. b).

Rules of Agreement

SECTION: #286. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case:

vir fortis, a brave man.

illa mulier, that woman.

urbium magnarum, of great cities.

cum ducentis militibus, with two hundred soldiers.

imperator victus est, the general was beaten.

secutae sunt tempestates, storms followed.

NOTE.--All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjective pronouns and to participles.

With two or more nouns the adjective is regularly plural, but often agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive):

Nisus et Euryalus primi (Aen. 5.294) , Nisus and Euryalus first.

Caesaris omni et gratia et opibus fruor (Fam. 1.9.21) , I enjoy all Caesar's favor and resources.

NOTE.--An adjective referring to two nouns connected by the preposition cum is occasionally plural (synesis, Sect: 280. a): as,-- Iuba cum Labieno capti (B. Afr. 52), Juba and Labienus were taken.

A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender and number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals implied (synesis, Sect: 280. a):

pars certare parati (Aen. 5.108) , a part ready to contend.

coloniae aliquot deductae, Prisci Latini appellati (Liv. 1.3) , several colonies were planted (led out) [of men] called Old Latins.

multitudo convicti sunt (Tac. Ann. 15.44) , a multitude were convicted.

magna pars raptae ( id. 1.9), a large part [of the women] were seized.

NOTE.--A superlative in the predicate rarely takes the gender of a partitive genitive by which it is limited: as,-- velocissimum animalium delphinus est (Plin. N. H. 9.20), the dolphin is the swiftest [creature] of creatures.

SECTION: #287. One adjective may belong in sense to two or more nouns of different genders. In such cases,:/p>

1. An Attributive Adjective agrees with the nearest noun:

multae operae ac laboris, of much trouble and toil.

vita moresque mei, my life and character.

si res, si vir, si tempus ullum dignum fuit (Mil. 19) , if any thing, if any man, if any time was fit.

2. A Predicate Adjective may agree with the nearest noun, if the Nouns form one connected idea:

factus est strepitus et admurmuratio; ( Verr. 1.45), a noise of assent was made (noise and murmur).

NOTE.--This is only when the copula agrees with the nearest subject (Sect: 317. c).

3. But generally, a Predicate Adjective will be masculine, if nouns of different genders mean living beings; neuter, if things without life:

uxor deinde ac liberi amplexi (Liv. 2.40) , then his wife and children embraced him.

labor (M.) voluptas que (F.) societate quadam inter se naturali sunt iuncta (N.) ( id. 5.4), labor and delight are bound together by a certain natural alliance.

4. If nouns of different genders include both living beings and things without life, a Predicate Adjective is sometimes masculine (or feminine), sometimes neuter, and sometimes agrees in gender with the nearest if that is plural:

rex regiaque classis una profecti (Liv. 21.50) , the king and the royal fleet set out together.

natura inimica sunt libera civitas et rex ( id. 44.24), by nature a free state and a king are hostile.

legatos sortesque oraculi exspectandas ( id. 5.15), that the ambassadors and the replies of the oracle should be waited for.

Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a Predicate Adjective in the neuter plural (cf. Sect: 289. c):

stultitia et temeritas et iniustitia ... sunt fugienda (Fin. 3.39) , foliy, rashness, and injustice are [things] to be shunned.

Adjectives used Substantively

SECTION: #288. Adjectives are often used as Nouns (substantively), the masculine usually to denote men or people in general of that kind, the feminine women, and the neuter things:

omnes, all men (everybody). omnia, all things (everything).

maiores, ancestors. minores, descendants.

Romani, Romans. barbari, barbarians.

liberta, a freedwoman. Sabinae, the Sabine wives.

sapiens, a sage (philosopher). amicus, a friend.

boni, the good (good people). bona, goods, property.

NOTE.--The plural of adjectives, pronouns, and participles is very common in this use. The singular is comparatively rare except in the neuter (Sect: 289. a, c) and in words that have become practically nouns.

Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often modified by other adjectives or by the possessive genitive:

tuus vicinus proximus, your next-door neighbor.

propinqui ceteri, his other relatives.

meus aequalis, a man of my own age.

eiius familiaris Catilina (Har. Resp. 5) , his intimate friend Catiline.

Leptae nostri familiarissimus (Fam. 9.13.2) , a very close friend of our friend Lepta.

When ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of an adjective, a noun must be added:

boni, the good; omnia, everything (all things); but,--

potentia omnium rerum, power over everything.

Many adjectives are used substantively either in the singular or the plural, with the added meaning of some noun which is understood from constant association:

africus [ ventus], the southwest wind; Ianuarius [ mensis], January; vitulina [ caro], veal (calf's flesh); fera [ bestia], a wild beast; patria [ terra], the fatherland; Gallia [ terra], Gaul (the land of the Galli); hiberna [ castra], winter quarters; triremis [ navis], a three-banked galley, trireme; argentarius [ faber], a silversmith; regia [ domus], the palace; Latinae [ feriae], the Latin festival.

NOTE.--These adjectives are specific in meaning, not generic like those in Sect: 288. They include the names of winds and months (Sect: 31).

For Nouns used as Adjectives, see Sect: 321. c.

For Adverbs used like Adjectives, see Sect: 321. d.

SECTION: #289. Neuter Adjectives are used substantively in the following special senses:

The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an abstract quality:

rapto vivere, to live by plunder. in arido, on dry ground.

honestum, an honorable act, or virtue (as a quality).

opus est maturato, there is need of haste. [Cf. impersonal passives Sect: 208. d.]

The neuter plural is used to signify objects in general having the quality denoted, and hence may stand for the abstract idea:

honesta, honorable deeds (in general). praeterita, the past (lit., bygones).

omnes fortia laudant, all men praise bravery (brave things).

A neuter adjective may be used as an appositive or predicate noun with a noun of different gender (cf. Sect: 287. a):

triste lupus stabulis (Ecl. 3.80) , the wolf [is] a grievous thing for the fold.

varium et mutabile semper femina (Aen. 4.569) , woman is ever a changing and fickle thing.

malum mihi videtur esse mors (Tusc. 1.9) , death seems to me to be an evil.

A neuter adjective may be used as an attributive or a predicate adjective with an infinitive or a substantive clause:

istuc ipsum non esse (Tusc. 1.12) , that very "not to be."

humanum est errare, to err is human.

aliud est errare Caesarem nolle, aliud nolle misereri; ( Lig. 16), it is one thing to be unwilling that Caesar should err, another to be unwilling that he should pity.

Adjectives with Adverbial Force

SECTION: #290. An adjective, agreeing with the subject or object, is often used to qualify the action of the verb, and so has the force of an adverb:

primus venit, he was the first to come (came first).

nullus dubito, I no way doubt.

laeti audiere, they were glad to hear.

erat Romae frequens (Rosc. Am. 16) , he was often at Rome.

serus in caelum redeas (Hor. Od. 1.2.45) , mayst thou return late to heaven.

.Comparatives and Superlatives

SECTION: #291. Besides their regular signification (as in English), the forms of comparison are used as follows:

The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of a quality: as,-- brevior, rather short; audacior, too bold.

The Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a very high degree of a quality without implying a distinct comparison: as,-- mons altissimus, a very high mountain.

NOTE.--The Superlative of Eminence is much used in complimentary references to persons and may often be translated by the simple positive.

With quam, vel, or unus the Superlative denotes the highest possible degree:

quam plurimi, as many as possible.

quam maxime potest ( maxime quam potest), as much as can be.

vel minimus, the very least.

vir unus doctissimus, the one most learned man.

NOTE 1.--A high degree of a quality is also denoted by such adverbs as admodum, valde, very, or by per or prae in composition (Sect: 267. d. 1): as,-- valde malus, very bad= pessimus; permagnus, very great; praealtus, very high (or deep).

NOTE 2.--A low degree of a quality is indicated by sub in composition: as,-- subrusticus, rather clownish, or by minus, not very; minime, not at all; parum, not enough; non satis, not much.

NOTE 3.--The comparative maiores (for maiores natu, greater by birth) has the special signification of ancestors; so minores often means descendants.

For the Superlative with quisque, see Sect: 313. b. For the construction of a substantive after a Comparative, see Sect: 406, 407; for that of a clause, see Sect: 535. c, 571. a. For the Ablative of Degree of Difference with a Comparative ( multo etc.), see Sect: 414.

SECTION: #292. When two qualities of an object are compared, both adjectives are in the Comparative:

longior quam latior acies erat (Liv. 27.48) , the line was longer than it was broad (or, rather long than broad).

verior quam gratior ( id. 22.38), more true than agreeable.

NOTE.--So also with adverbs: as,-- libentius quam verius (Mil. 78) , with more freedom than truth.

Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive:

disertus magis quam sapiens (Att. 10.1.4) , eloquent rather than wise.

clari magis quam honesti (Iug. 8) , more renowned than honorable.

NOTE.--A comparative and a positive, or even two positives, are sometimes connected by quam. This use is rarer and less elegant than those before noticed:

claris maioribus quam vetustis (Tac. Ann. 4.61) , of a family more famous than old.

vehementius quam caute (Tac. Agr. 4) , with more fury than good heed.

SECTION: #293. Superlatives (and more rarely Comparatives) denoting order and succession--also medius, [ ceterus], reliquus--usually designate not what object, but what part of it, is meant:

summus mons, the top of the hill.

in ultima platea, at the end of the place.

prior actio, the earlier part of an action.

reliqui captivi, the rest of the prisoners.

in colle medio (B. G. 1.24) , half way up the hill (on the middle of the hill).

inter ceteram planitiem (Iug. 92) , in a region elsewhere level.

NOTE.--A similar use is found in sera ( multa) nocte, late at night, and the like. But medium viae, the middle of the way; multum diei, much of the day, also occur.

1 Observe that the classes defined in a-e are not mutually exclusive, but that a single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative clause is usually subordinate, and may be at the same time temporal or conditional: and subordinate clauses may be coordinate with each other

.PRONOUNS

SECTION: #294. A Pronoun indicates some person or thing without either naming or describing it. Pronouns are derived from a distinct class of roots, which seem to have denoted only ideas of place and direction (Sect: 228. 2), and from which nouns or verbs can very rarely be formed. They may therefore stand for Nouns when the person or thing, being already present to the senses or imagination, needs only to be pointed out, not named.

Some pronouns indicate the object in itself, without reference to its class, and have no distinction of gender. These are Personal Pronouns. They stand syntactically for Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns.

Other pronouns designate a particular object of a class, and take the gender of the individuals of that class. These are called Adjective Pronouns. They stand for Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives.

Others are used in both ways; and, though called adjective pronouns, may also be treated as personal, taking, however, the gender of the object indicated.

In accordance with their meanings and uses, Pronouns are classified as follows:

Personal Pronouns (Sect: 295). Interrogative Pronouns (Sect: 333).

Demonstrative Pronouns (Sect: 296). Relative Pronouns (Sect: 303).

Reflexive Pronouns (Sect: 299). Indefinite Pronouns (Sect: 309).

Possessive Pronouns (Sect: 302).

.Personal Pronouns

SECTION: #295. The Personal Pronouns have, in general, the same constructions as nouns.

The personal pronouns are not expressed as subjects, except for distinction or emphasis:

te voco, I call you. But,--

quis me vocat? ego te voco, who is calling me? I (emphatic) am calling you.

The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that in -um being used partitively (Sect: 346), and that in - i oftenest objectively (Sect: 348):

maior vestrum, the elder of you.

habetis ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sui; ( Cat. 4.19), you have a leader who thinks (is mindful) of you and forgets (is forgetful of) himself.

pars nostrum, a part (i.e. some) of us.

NOTE 1.--The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are occasionally used objectively (Sect: 348): as,-- cupidus vestrum (Verr. 3.224) , fond of you; custos vestrum (Cat. 3.29) , the guardian of you (your guardian).

NOTE 2.--"One of themselves"is expressed by unus ex suis or ipsis (rarely ex se), or unus suorum.

The Latin has no personal pronouns of the third person except the reflexive se. The want is supplied by a Demonstrative or Relative (Sect: 296. 2, 308. f)

Demonstrative Pronouns

SECTION: #296. Demonstrative Pronouns are used either adjectively or substantively.

1. As adjectives, they follow the rules for the agreement of adjectives and are called Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives (Sect: 286, 287):

hoc proelio facto, after this battle was fought (this battle having been fought).

eodem proelio, in the same battle.

ex eis aedificiis, out of those buildings.

2. As substantives, they are equivalent to personal pronouns. This use is regular in the oblique cases, especially of is:

Caesar et exercitus eiius, Caesar and his army (not suus). [But, Caesar exercitum suum dimisit, Caesar disbanded his [own] army.]

si obsides ab eis dentur (B. G. 1.14) , if hostages should be given by them (persons just spoken of).

hi sunt extra provinciam trans Rhodanum primi; ( id. 1.10), they (those just mentioned) are the first [inhabitants] across the Rhone.

ille minimum propter adulescentiam poterat ( id. 1.20), he (emphatic) had very little power, on account of his youth.

An adjective pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or predicate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which it refers (cf. Sect: 306):

hic locus est unus quo perfugiant; hic portus, haec arx, haec ara sociorum (Verr. 5.126) , this is the only place to which they can flee for refuge; this is the haven, this the citadel, this the altar of the allies.

rerum caput hoc erat, hic fons (Hor. Ep. 1.17.45) , this was the head of things, this the source.

eam sapientiam interpretantur quam adhuc mortalis nemo est consecutus [ for id. .. quod] (Lael. 18) , they explain that [thing] to be wisdom which no man ever yet attained.

SECTION: #297. The main uses of hic, ille, iste, and is are the following:

Hic is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, or thought). It is hence called the demonstrative of the first person.

It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; sometimes for "the latter"of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writing; more rarely for "the former" when that, though more remote on the written page, is nearer the speaker in time, place, or thought. Often it refers to that which has just been mentioned.

Ille is used of what is remote (in time, etc.); and is hence called the demonstrative of the third person.

It is sometimes used to mean "the former‰Û?; also (usually following its noun) of what is famous or well-known; often (especially the neuter illud) to mean "the following.‰Û?

Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness: often in allusion to the person addressed,--hence called the demonstrative of the second person.

It especially refers to one's opponent (in court, etc.), and frequently implies antagonism or contempt.

Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and is especially common as a personal pronoun. It does not denote any special object, but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards explained by a relative. Often it is merely a correlative to the relative qui:

venit mihi obviam tuus puer, is mihi litteras abs te reddidit (Att. 2.1.1) , your boy met me, he delivered to me a letter from you.

eum quem, one whom.

eum consulem qui non dubitet (Cat. 4.24) , a consul who will not hesitate.

The pronouns hic, ille, and is are used to point in either direction, back to something just mentioned or forward to something about to be mentioned.

The neuter forms often refer to a clause, phrase, or idea:

est illud quidem vel maximum, animum videre (Tusc. 1.52) , that is in truth a very great thing,--to see the soul.

The demonstratives are sometimes used as pronouns of reference, to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned:

nullam virtus aliam mercedem desiderat praeter hanc laudis (Arch. 28) , virtue wants no other reward except that [just mentioned] of praise.

NOTE.--But the ordinary English use of that of is hardly known in Latin. Commonly the genitive construction is continued without a pronoun, or some other construction is preferred:

cum ei Simonides artem memoriae polliceretur: oblivionis, inquit, mallem (Fin. 2.104) , when Simonides promised him the art of memory, "I should prefer" said he, "[that] of forgetfulness.‰ Û?

Caesaris exercitus Pompeiianos ad Pharsalum vicit, the army of Caesar defeated that of Pompey (the Pompeians) at Pharsalus.

SECTION: #298. The main uses of .idem and .ipse are as follows:

When a quality or act is ascribed with emphasis to a person or thing already named, is or idem (often with the concessive quidem) is used to indicate that person or thing:

per unum servum et eum ex gladiatorio ludo; ( Att. 1.16.5), by means of a single slave, and that too one from the gladiatorial school.

vincula, et ea sempiterna (Cat. 4.7) , imprisonment, and that perpetual.

Ti. Gracchus regnum occupare conatus est, vel regnavit is quidem paucos mensis (Lael. 41) , Tiberius Gracchus tried to usurp royal power, or rather he actually reigned a few months.

NOTE.--So rarely with ille: as,-- nunc dextra ingeminans ictus, nunc ille sinistra (Aen. 5.457) , now dealing redoubled blows with his right hand, now (he) with his left. [In imitation of the Homeric ho ge: cf. Aen. 5.334; 9.796.]

Idem, the same, is often used where the English requires an adverb or adverbial phrase (also, too, yet, at the same time):

oratio splendida et grandis et eadem in primis faceta (Brut. 273) , an oration, brilliant, able, and very witty too.

cum [ haec] dicat, negat idem esse in Deo gratiam (N. D. 1.121) , when he says this, he denies also that there is mercy with God (he, the same man).

NOTE.--This is really the same use as in a above, but in this case the pronoun cannot be represented by a pronoun in English.

The intensive ipse, self, is used with any of the other pronouns, with a noun, or with a temporal adverb for the sake of emphasis:

turpe mihi ipsi videbatur (Phil. 1.9) , even to me (to me myself) it seemed disgraceful.

id ipsum, that very thing; quod ipsum, which of itself alone.

in eum ipsum locum, to that very place.

tum ipsum (Off. 2.60) , at that very time.

NOTE 1.--The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English by just, very, mere, etc.

NOTE 2.--In English, the pronouns himself etc. are used both intensively (as, he will come himself) and reflexively (as, he will kill himself): in Latin the former would be translated by ipse, the latter by se or sese.

Ipse is often used alone, substantively, as follows:

1. As an emphatic pronoun of the third person:

idque rei publicae praeclarum, ipsis gloriosum (Phil. 2.27) , and this was splendid for the state, glorious for themselves.

omnes boni quantum in ipsis fuit ( id. 2.29), all good men so far as was in their power (in themselves).

di capiti ipsius generique reservent (Aen. 8.484) , may the gods hold in reserve [such a fate] to fall on his own and his son-in-law's head.

2. To emphasize an omitted subject of the first or second person:

vobiscum ipsi recordamini; ( Phil. 2.1), remember in your own minds (yourselves with yourselves).

3. To distinguish the principal personage from subordinate persons:

ipse dixit (cf. autos epha), he (the Master) said it.

Nomentanus erat super ipsum (Hor. S. 2.8.23) , Nomentanus was above [the host] himself [at table].

Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of a reflexive (see Sect: 300. b).

Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the real emphasis in English is on a reflexive in the predicate:

me ipse consolor (Lael. 10) , I console myself. [Not me ipsum, as the English would lead us to expect.]

.Reflexive Pronouns

SECTION: #299. The Reflexive Pronoun ( se), and usually its corresponding possessive ( suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause:

se ex navi proiecit (B. G. 4.25) , he threw himself from the ship.

Dumnorigem ad se vocat ( id. 1.20), he calls Dumnorix to him.

sese castris tenebant ( id. 3.24), they kept themselves in camp.

contemni se putant (Cat. M. 65) , they think they are despised.

Caesar suas copias subducit (B. G. 1.22) , Caesar leads up his troops.

Caesar statuit sibi Rhenum esse transeundum ( id. 4.16), Caesar decided that he must cross the Rhine (the Rhine must be crossed by himself).

For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases of the personal pronouns ( mei, tui, etc.) and the corresponding possessives ( meus, tuus, etc.) are used:

morti me obtuli; ( Mil. 94), I have exposed myself to death.

hinc te reginae ad limina perfer (Aen. 1.389) , do you go (bear yourself) hence to the queen's threshold.

quid est quod tantis nos in laboribus exerceamus (Arch. 28) , what reason is there why we should exert ourselves in so great toils?

singulis vobis novenos ex turmis manipulisque vestri similes eligite (Liv. 21.54) , for each of you pick out from the squadrons and maniples nine like yourselves.

SECTION: #300. In a subordinate clause of a complex sentence there is a double use of Reflexives.

1. The reflexive may always be used to refer to the subject of its own clause (Direct Reflexive):

iudicari potest quantum habeat in se boni constantia (B. G. 1.40) , it can be determined how much good firmness possesses (has in itself).

[ Caesar] noluit eum locum vacare, ne Germani e suis finibus transirent ( id. 1.28), Caesar did not wish this place to lie vacant, for fear the Germans would cross over from their territories.

si qua significatio virtutis eluceat ad quam se similis animus adplicet et adiungat (Lael. 48) , if any sign of virtue shine forth to which a similar disposition may attach itself.

2. If the subordinate clause expresses the words or thought of the subject of the main clause, the reflexive is regularly used to refer to that subject (Indirect Reflexive):

petierunt ut sibi liceret (B. G. 1.30) , they begged that it might be allowed them (the petitioners).

Iccius nuntium mittit, nisi subsidium sibi submittatur ( id. 2.6), Iccius sends a message that unless relief be furnished him, etc.

decima legio ei gratias egit, quod de se optimum iudicium fecisset ( id. 1.41), the tenth legion thanked him because [they said] he had expressed a high opinion of them.

si obsides ab eis (the Helvetians) sibi (Caesar, who is the speaker) dentur, se (Caesar) cum eis pacem esse facturum ( id. 1.14), [Caesar said that] if hostages were given him by them he would make peace with them.

NOTE.--Sometimes the person or thing to which the reflexive refers is not the grammatical subject of the main clause, though it is in effect the subject of discourse: Thus,-- cum ipsi deo nihil minus gratum futurum sit quam non omnibus patere ad se placandum viam (Legg. 2.25) , since to God himself nothing will be less pleasing than that the way to appease him should not be open to all men.

If the subordinate clause does not express the words or thought of the main subject, the reflexive is not regularly used, though it is occasionally found:

sunt ita multi ut eos carcer capere non possit (Cat. 2.22) , they are so many that the prison cannot hold them. [Here se could not be used; so also in the example following.]

ibi in proximis villis ita bipartito fuerunt, ut Tiberis inter eos et pons interesset ( id. 3.5), there they stationed themselves in the nearest farmhouses, in two divisions, in such a manner that the Tiber and the bridge were between them (the divisions).

non fuit eo contentus quod ei praeter spem acciderat (Manil. 25) , he was not content with that which had happened to him beyond his hope.

Compare: qui fit, Maecenas, ut nemo, quam sibi sortem seu ratio dederit seu fors obiecerit, illa contentus vivat (Hor. S. 1.1.1) , how comes it, M?"cenas, that nobody lives contented with that lot which choice has assigned him or chance has thrown in his way? [Here sibi is used to put the thought into the mind of the discontented man.]

Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of an indirect reflexive, either to avoid ambiguity or from carelessness; and in later writers is sometimes found instead of the direct reflexive:

cur de sua virtute aut de ipsius diligentia desperarent (B. G. 1.40) , why (he asked) should they despair of their own courage or his diligence?

omnia aut ipsos aut hostes populatos (Q. C. 3.5.6) , [they said that] either they themselves or the enemy had laid all waste. [Direct reflexive.]

qui se ex his minus timidos existimari volebant, non se hostem vereri, sed angustias itineris et magnitudinem silvarum quae intercederent inter ipsos (the persons referred to by se above) atque Ariovistum ... timere dicebant (B. G. 1.39) , those of them who wished to be thought less timid said they did not fear the enemy, but were afraid of the narrows and the vast extent of the forests which were between themselves and Ariovistus.

audistis nuper dicere legatos Tyndaritanos Mercurium qui sacris anniversariis apud eos coleretur esse sublatum (Verr. 4.84) , you have just heard the ambassadors from Tyndaris say that the statue of Mercury which was worshipped with annual rites among them was taken away. [Here Cicero wavers between apud eos colebatur, a remark of his own, and apud se coleretur, the words of the ambassadors. eos does not strictly refer to the ambassadors, but to the people--the Tyndaritani.]

SECTION: #301. Special uses of the Reflexive are the following:

The reflexive in a subordinate clause sometimes refers to the subject of a suppressed main clause:

Paetus omnis libros quos frater suus reliquisset mihi donavit (Att. 2.1) , P?"tus gave me all the books which (as he said in the act of donation) his brother had left him.

The reflexive may refer to any noun or pronoun in its own clause which is so emphasized as to become the subject of discourse:

Socratem cives sui interfecerunt, Socrates was put to death by his own fellowcitizens.

qui poterat salus sua cuiquam non probari; ( Mil. 81), how can any one fail to approve his own safety? [In this and the preceding example the emphasis is preserved in English by the change of voice.]

hunc si secuti erunt sui comites (Cat. 2.10) , this man, if his companions follow him.

NOTE.--Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs is absorbed: as,-- studeo sanare sibi ipsos (Cat. 2.17) , I am anxious to cure these men for their own benefit (i.e. ut sani sibi sint).

Suus is used for one's own as emphatically opposed to that of others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any word in it:

suis flammis delete Fidenas (Liv. 4.33) , destroy Fiden?" with its own fires (the fires kindled by that city, figuratively). [Cf. Cat. 1.32.]

The reflexive may depend upon a verbal noun or adjective:

sui laus, self-praise.

habetis ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sui (Cat. 4.19) , you have a leader mindful of you, forgetful of himself.

perditi homines cum sui similibus servis (Phil. 1.5) , abandoned men with slaves like themselves.

The reflexive may refer to the subject implied in an infinitive or verbal abstract used indefinitely:

contentum suis rebus esse maximae sunt divitiae (Par. 51) , the greatest wealth is to be content with one's own.

cui proposita sit conservatio sui (Fin. 5.37) , one whose aim is self-preservation.

Inter se ( nos, vos), among themselves (ourselves, yourselves), is egularly used to express reciprocal action or relation:

inter se confligunt (Cat. 1.25) , contend with each other.

inter se continentur (Arch. 2) , are joined to each other.

.Possessive Pronouns

SECTION: #302. The Possessive Pronouns are derivative adjectives, which take the gender, number, and case of the noun to which they belong, not those of the possessor:

haec ornamenta sunt mea (Val. 4.4) , these are my jewels. [ mea is neuter plural, though the speaker is a woman.]

mei sunt ordines, mea discriptio; (Cat. M. 59), mine are the rows, mine the arrangement. [ mea is feminine, though the speaker is Cyrus.]

multa in nostro collegio praeclara ( id. 64), [there are] many fine things in our college. [ nostro is neuter singular, though men are referred to.]

Germani suas copias castris eduxerunt (B. G. 1.51) , the Germans led their troops out of the camp.

To express possession and similar ideas the possessive pronouns are regularly used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pronouns (Sect: 343. a):

domus mea, my house. [Not domus mei.]

pater noster, our father. [Not pater nostri.]

patrimonium tuum, your inheritance. [Not tui.]

NOTE 1.--Exceptions are rare in classic Latin, common in later writers. For the use of a possessive pronoun instead of an Objective Genitive, see Sect: 348. a.

NOTE 2.--The Interrogative Possessive cuius, - a, -um, occurs in poetry and early Latin: as,-- cuium pecus (Ecl. 3.1) , whose flock? The genitive cuius is generally used instead.

The possessives have often the acquired meaning of peculiar to, favorable or propitious towards, the person or thing spoken of:

[ petere] ut sua clementia ac mansuetudine utatur (B. G. 2.14) , they asked (they said) that he would show his [wonted] clemency and humanity.

ignoranti quem portum petat nullus suus ventus est (Sen. Ep. 71.3) , to him who knows not what port he is bound to, no wind is fair (his own).

tempore tuo pugnasti; ( Liv. 38.45.10), did you fight at a fit time?

NOTE.--This use is merely a natural development of the meaning of the possessive, and the pronoun may often be rendered literally.

The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronouns) when they are plainly implied in the context:

socium fraudavit, he cheated his partner. [ socium suum would be distinctive, his partner (and not another's); suum socium, emphatic, his own partner.]

Possessive pronouns and adjectives implying possession are often used substantively to denote some special class or relation:

nostri, our countrymen, or men of our party.

suos continebat (B. G. 1.15) , he held his men in check.

flamma extrema meorum (Aen. 2.431) , last flames of my countrymen.

Sullani, the veterans of Sulla's army; Pompeiiani, the partisans of Pompey.

NOTE.--There is no reason to suppose an ellipsis here. The adjective becomes a noun like other adjectives (see Sect: 288).

A possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and case with an implied noun or pronoun:

mea solius causa; ( Ter. Heaut. 129), for my sake only.

in nostro omnium fletu; ( Mil. 92), amid the tears of us all.

ex Anniana Milonis domo; ( Att. 4.3.3), out of Annius Milo's house. [Equivalent to ex Anni Milonis domo.]

nostra omnium patria, the country of us all.

suum ipsius regnum, his own kingdom.

For the special reflexive use of the possessive suus, see Sect: 299, 300.

.Relative Pronouns

SECTION: #303. A Relative Pronoun agrees with some word expressed or implied either in its own clause, or (often) in the antecedent (demonstrative) clause. In the fullest construction the antecedent is expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a corresponding demonstrative to which the relative refers: as,-- iter in ea loca facere coepit, quibus in locis esse Germanos audiebat (B. G. 4.7) , he began to march into those PLACES in which PLACES he heard the Germans were. But one of these nouns is commonly omitted.

The antecedent is in Latin very frequently (rarely in English) found in the relative clause, but more commonly in the antecedent clause.

Thus relatives serve two uses at the same time:

1. As Nouns (or Adjectives) in their own clause: as,-- ei qui Alesiae obsidebantur (B. G. 7.77) , those who were besieged at Alesia.

2. As Connectives: as,--T. Balventius, qui superiore anno primum pilum duxerat ( id. 5.35), Titus Balventius, who the year before had been a centurion of the first rank.

When the antecedent is in a different sentence, the relative is often equivalent to a demonstrative with a conjunction: as,-- quae cum ita sint (= et cum ea ita sint), [and] since this is so.

The subordinating force did not belong to the relative originally, but was developed from an interrogative or indefinite meaning specialized by use. But the subordinating and the later connective force were acquired by qui at such an early period that the steps of the process cannot now be traced.

SECTION: #304. A Relative Pronoun indicates a relation between its own clause and some substantive. This substantive is called the Antecedent of the relative.

Thus, in the sentence--

eum nihil delectabat quod fas esset (Mil. 43) , nothing pleased him which was right,

the relative quod connects its antecedent nihil with the predicate fas esset, indicating a relation between the two.

SECTION: #305. A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in Gender and Number; but its Case depends on its construction in the clause in which it stands:

ea dies quam constituerat venit (B. G. 1.8) , that day which he had appointed came.

pontem qui erat ad Genavam iubet rescindi; ( id. 1.7), he orders the bridge which was near Geneva to be cut down.

Aduatuci, de quibus supra diximus, domum reverterunt ( id. 2.29), the Aduatuci, of whom we have spoken above, returned home.

NOTE.--This rule applies to all relative words so far as they are variable in form: as, qualis, quantus, quicumque, etc.

If a relative has two or more antecedents, it follows the rules for the agreement of predicate adjectives (Sect: 286, 287):

filium et filiam, quos valde dilexit, uno tempore amisit, he lost at the same time a son and a daughter whom he dearly loved.

grandes natu matres et parvuli liberi, quorum utrorumque aetas misericor, diam nostram requirit (Verr. 5.129) , aged matrons and little children, whose time of life in each case demands our compassion.

otium atque divitiae, quae prima mortales putant ( Sall. Cat. 36), idleness and wealth, which men count the first (objects of desire).

eae fruges et fructus quos terra gignit (N. D. 2.37) , those fruits and crops which the earth produces.

For the Person of the verb agreeing with the Relative, see Sect: 316. a.

SECTION: #306. A Relative generally agrees in gender and number with an appositive or predicate noun in its own clause, rather than with an antecedent of different gender or number (cf. Sect: 296. a):

mare etiam quem Neptunum esse dicebas (N. D. 3.52) , the sea, too, which you said was Neptune. [Not quod.]

Thebae ipsae, quod Boeotiae caput est (Liv. 42.44) , even Thebes, which is the chief city of Boeotia.

NOTE.--This rule is occasionally violated: as,-- flumen quod appellatur Tamesis (B. G. 5.11) , a river which is called the Thames.

A relative occasionally agrees with its antecedent in case (by attraction):

si aliquid aga eorum quorum consuesti; (Fam. 5.14), if you should do something of what you are used to do. [For eorum quae.]

NOTE.--Occasionally the antecedent is attracted into the case of the relative: urbem quam statuo vestra est (Aen. 1.573) , the city which I am founding is yours. Naucratem, quem convenire volui, in navi non erat (Pl. Am. 1009) , Naucrates, whom I wished to meet, was not on board the ship.

A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied antecedent:

quartum genus ... qui in vetere aere alieno vacillant (Cat. 2.21) , a fourth class, who are staggering under old debts.

unus ex eo numero qui parati erant (Iug. 35) , one of the number [of those] who were ready.

coniuravere pauci, de qua [ i. e. coniuratione] dicam ( Sall. Cat. 18), a few have conspired, of which [conspiracy] I will speak.

NOTE.--So regularly when the antecedent is implied in a possessive pronoun: as, -- nostra acta, quos tyrannos vocas (Vat. 29) , the deeds of us, whom you call tyrants. [Here quos agrees with the nostrum (genitive plural) implied in nostra.]

Antecedent of the Relative

SECTION: #307. The Antecedent Noun sometimes appears in both clauses, but usually only in the one that precedes. Sometimes it is wholly omitted.

The antecedent noun may be repeated in the relative clause:

loci natura erat haec quem locum nostri delegerant (B. G. 2.18) , the nature of the ground which our men had chosen was this.

The antecedent noun may appear only in the relative clause, agreeing with the relative in case:

quas res in consulatu nostro gessimus attigit hic versibus (Arch. 28) , he has touched in verse the things which I did in my consulship.

quae prima innocentis mihi defensio est oblata suscepi; ( Sull. 92), I undertook the first defence of an innocent man that was offered me.

NOTE.--In this case the relative clause usually comes first (cf. Sect: 308. d) and a lemonstrative usually stands in the antecedent clause:

quae pars civitatis calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea princeps poenas persolvit (B. G. 1.12) , that part of the state which had brought disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.

quae gratia currum fuit vivis, eadem sequitur (Aen. 6.653) , the same pleasure that they took in chariots in their lifetime follows them (after death).

qui fit ut nemo, quam sibi sortem ratio dederit, illa contentus vivat (cf. Hor. S. 1.1.1), how does it happen that no one lives contented with the lot which choice has assigned him?

The antecedent may be omitted, especially if it is indefinite:

qui decimae legionis aquilam ferebat (B. G. 4.25) , [the man] who bore the eagle of the tenth legion.

qui cognoscerent misit ( id. 1.21), he sent [men] to reconnoitre.

The phrase id quod or quae res may be used (instead of quod alone) to refer to a group of words or an idea:

[ obtrectatum est] Gabinio dicam anne Pompeiio? an utrique--id quod est verius? ( Manil. 57), an affront has been offered--shall I say to Gabinius or to Pompey? or--which is truer--to both?

multum sunt in venationibus, quae res vires alit (B. G. 4.1) , they spend much time in hunting, which [practice] increases their strength.

NOTE.--But quod alone often occurs: as,--Cassius noster, quod mihi magnae voluptati fuit, hostem reiiecerat (Fam. 2.10) , our friend Cassius--which was a great satisfaction to me--had driven back the enemy.

The antecedent noun, when in apposition with the main clause, or with some word of it, is put in the relative clause:

firmi [ amici], cuius generis est magna penuria (Lael. 62) , steadfast friends, a class of which there is great lack (of which class there is, etc.).

A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) belonging to the antecedent may stand in the relative clause:

vasa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. 4.63) , those most beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house. [Nearly equivalent to the vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones.]

SECTION: #308. In the use of Relatives, the following points are to be observed:

The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in English:

liber quem mihi dedisti, the book you gave me.

is sum qui semper fui, I am the same man I always was.

eo in loco est de quo tibi locutus sum, he is in the place I told you of.

When two relative clauses are connected by a copulative conjunction, a relative pronoun sometimes stands in the first and a demonstrative in the last:

erat profectus obviam legionibus Macedonicis quattuor, quas sibi conciliare pecunia cogitabat easque ad urbem adducere (Fam. 12.23.2) , he had set out to meet four legions from Macedonia, which he thought to win over to himself by a gift of money and to lead (them) to the city.

A relative clause in Latin often takes the place of some other construction in English,--particularly of a participle, an appositive, or a noun of agency:

leges quae nunc sunt, the existing laws (the laws which now exist).

Caesar qui Galliam vicit, Caesar the conqueror of Gaul.

iusta gloria qui est fructus virtutis (Pison. 57) , true glory [which is] the fruit of virtue.

ille qui petit, the plaintiff (he who sues).

qui legit, a reader (one who reads).

In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually comes first, often containing the antecedent noun (cf. Sect: 307. b):

quae pars civitatis Helvetiae insignem calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea princeps poenas persolvit (B. G. 1.12) , the portion of the Helvetian state which had brought a serious disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.

NOTE.--In colloquial language, the relative clause in such cases often contains a redundant demonstrative pronoun which logically belongs in the antecedent clause: as,-- ille qui consulte cavet, diutine uti bene licet partum bene (Plaut. Rud. 1240), he who is on his guard, he may long enjoy what he has well obtained.

The relative with an abstract noun may be used in a parenthetical clause to characterize a person, like the English such:

quae vestra prudentia est (Cael. 45) , such is your wisdom. [Equivalent

to pro vestra prudentia.]

audisses comoedos vel lectorem vel lyristen, vel, quae mea liberalitas, omnes (Plin. Ep. 1.15) , you would have listened to comedians, or a reader, or a lyre-player, or--such is my liberality--to all of them.

A relative pronoun (or adverb) often stands at the beginning of an independent sentence or clause, serving to connect it with the sentence or clause that precedes:

Caesar statuit exspectandam classem; quae ubi convenit (B. G. 3.14) , Caesar decided that he must wait for the fleet; and when this had come together, etc.

quae qui audiebant, and those who heard this (which things).

quae cum ita sint, and since this is so.

quorum quod simile factum (Cat. 4.13) , what deed of theirs like this?

quo cum venisset, and when he had come there (whither when he had come).

NOTE.--This arrangement is common even when another relative or an interrogative follows. The relative may usually be translated by an English demonstrative, with or without and.

A relative adverb is regularly used in referring to an antecedent in the Locative case; so, often, to express any relation of place instead of the formal relative pronoun:

mortuus Cumis quo se contulerat (Liv. 2.21) , having died at Cum? ", whither he had retired. [Here in quam urbem might be used, but not in quas.]

locus quo aditus non erat, a place to which (whither) there was no access.

regna unde genus ducis (Aen. 5.801) , the kingdom from which you derive your race.

unde petitur, the defendant (he from whom something is demanded).

The relatives qui, qualis, quantus, quot, etc. are often rendered simply by as in English:

idem quod semper, the same as always.

cum esset talis qualem te esse video; ( Mur. 32), since he was such a man as I see you are.

tanta dimicatio quanta numquam fuit (Att. 7.1.2) , such a fight as never was before.

tot mala quot sidera (Ov. Tr. 1.5.47), as many troubles as stars in the sky.

The general construction of relatives is found in clauses introduced by relative adverbs: as, ubi, quo, unde, cum, quare.

.Indefinite Pronouns

SECTION: #309. The Indefinite Pronouns are used to indicate that some person or thing is meant, without designating what one.

SECTION: #310. Quis, quispiam, aliquis, quidam, are particular indefinites, meaning some, a certain, any. Of these, quis, any one, is least definite, and quidam, a certain one, most definite; aliquis and quispiam, some one, stand between the two:

dixerit quis ( quispiam), some one may say.

aliqui philosophi ita putant, some philosophers think so. [ quidam would mean certain persons defined to the speaker's mind, though not named.]

habitant hic quaedam mulieres pauperculae (Ter. Ad. 647) , some poor women live here [i.e. some women he knows of; some women or other would be aliquae or nescio quae].

The indefinite quis is rare except in the combinations si quis, if any; nisi quis, if any ... not; ne quis, lest any, in order that none; num quis ( ecquis), whether any; and in relative clauses.

The compounds quispiam and aliquis are often used instead of quis after si, nisi, ne, and num, and are rather more emphatic:

quid si hoc quispiam voluit deus (Ter. Eun. 875) , what if some god had desired this?

nisi alicui suorum negotium daret (Nep. Dion. 8.2), unless he should employ some one of his friends.

cavebat Pompeiius omnia, ne aliquid vos timeretis (Mil. 66) , Pompey took every precaution, so that you might have no fear.

SECTION: #311. In a particular negative aliquis ( aliqui), some one (some), is regularly used, where in a universal negative quisquam, any one, or ullus, any, would be required:

iustitia numquam nocet cuiquam (Fin. 1.50) , justice never does harm to anybody. [ alicui would mean to somebody who possesses it.]

non sine aliquo metu, not without some fear. But,-- sine ullo metu, without any fear.

cum aliquid non habeas (Tusc. 1.88) , when there is something you have not.

NOTE.--The same distinction holds between quis and aliquis on the one hand, and quisquam ( ullus) on the other, in conditional and other sentences when a negative is expressed or suggested:

si quisquam, ille sapiens fuit (Lael. 9) , if any man was (ever) a sage, he was.

dum praesidia ulla fuerunt (Rosc. Am. 126) , while there were any armed forces.

si quid in te peccavi; ( Att. 3.15.4), if I have done wrong towards you [in any particular case (see Sect: 310)].

SECTION: #312. Quivis or quilibet (any one you will), quisquam, and the corresponding adjective ullus, any at all, are general indefinites.

Quivis and quilibet are used chiefly in affirmative clauses, quisquam and ullus in clauses where a universal negative is expressed or suggested:

non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum (Hor. Ep. 1.17.36) , it is not every man's luck to go to Corinth. [ non cuiquam would mean not any man's.]

quemlibet modo aliquem (Acad. 2.132) , anybody you will, provided it be somebody.

si quisquam est timidus, is ego sum (Fam. 6.14.1) , if any man is timorous, I am he.

si tempus est ullum iure hominis necandi; ( Mil. 9), if there is any occasion whatever when homicide is justifiable.

NOTE.--The use of the indefinites is very various, and must be learned from the Lexicon and from practice. The choice among them may depend merely on the point of view of the speaker, so that they are often practically interchangeable. The differences are (with few exceptions) those of logic, not of syntax.

SECTION: #313. The distributives quisque (every), uterque (each of two), and unus quisque (every single one) are used in general assertions:

bonus liber melior est quisque quo maior (Plin. Ep. 1.20.4) , the larger a good book is, the better (each good book is better in proportion, etc.).

ambo exercitus suas quisque abeunt domos (Liv. 2.7.1) , both armies go away, every man to his home.

uterque utrique erat exercitus in conspectu; ( B. G. 7.35), each army was in sight of the other (each to each).

ponite ante oculos unum quemque regum (Par. 1.11) , set before your eyes each of the kings.

Quisque regularly stands in a dependent clause, if there is one:

quo quisque est sollertior, hoc docet iracundius (Rosc. Com. 31) , the keenerwitted a man is, the more impatiently he teaches.

NOTE.-- Quisque is generally postpositive: as, suum cuique, to every man his own.

Quisque is idiomatically used with superlatives and with ordinal numerals:

nobilissimus quisque, all the noblest (one after the other in the order of their nobility).

primo quoque tempore (Rosc. Am. 36) , at the very first opportunity.

antiquissimum quodque tempus (B. G. 1.45) , the most ancient times.

decimus quisque ( id. 5.52), one in ten.

NOTE 1.--Two superlatives with quisque imply a proportion: as,-- sapientissimus quisque aequissimo animo moritur (Cat. M. 83) , the wisest men die with the greatest equanimity.

NOTE 2.-- Quotus quisque has the signification of how many, pray? often in a disparaging sense (how few):

quotus enim quisque disertus? quotus quisque iuris peritus est (Planc. 62) , for how few are eloquent! how few are learned in the law!

quotus enim istud quisque fecisset (Lig. 26) , for how many would have done this? [i.e. scarcely anybody would have done it].

SECTION: #314. Nemo, no one, is used of persons only:/p>

1. As a substantive:

neminem accusat, he accuses no one.

2. As an adjective pronoun instead of nullus:

vir nemo bonus (Legg. 2.41) , no good man.

NOTE.--Even when used as a substantive, nemo may take a noun in apposition: as,-- nemo scriptor, nobody [who is] a writer.

Nullus, no, is commonly an adjective; but in the genitive and ablative singular it is regularly used instead of the corresponding cases of nemo, and in the plural it may be either an adjective or a substantive:

nullum mittitur telum (B. C. 2.13) , not a missile is thrown.

nullo hoste prohibente (B. G. 3.6) , without opposition from the enemy.

nullius insector calamitatem (Phil. 2.98) , I persecute the misfortune of no one.

nullo adiuvante ( id. 10.4), with the help of no one (no one helping).

nulli erant praedones (Flacc. 28) , there were no pirates.

nulli eximentur (Pison. 94) , none shall be taken away.

For non nemo, non nullus ( non nulli), see Sect: 326. a.

.Alius and Alter

SECTION: #315. Alius means simply other, another (of an indefinite number); alter, the other (of two), often the second in a series; ceteri and reliqui, all the rest, the others; alteruter, one of the two:

propterea quod aliud iter haberent nullum (B. G. 1.7) , because (as they said) they had no other way.

uni epistulae respondi, venio ad alteram (Fam. 2.17.6) , one letter I have answered, I come to the other.

alterum genus (Cat. 2.19) , the second class.

iecissem ipse me potius in profundum ut ceteros conservarem (Sest. 45) , I should have rather thrown myself into the deep to save the rest.

Servilius consul, reliquique magistratus (B. C. 3.21) , Servilius the consul and the rest of the magistrates.

cum sit necesse alterum utrum vincere (Fam. 6.3) , since it must be that one of the two should prevail.

NOTE.--Alter is often used, especially with negatives, in reference to an indefinite number where one is opposed to all the rest taken singly:

dum ne sit te ditior alter (Hor. S. 1.1.40) , so long as another is not richer than you (lit. the other, there being at the moment only two persons considered).

non ut magis alter, amicus ( id. 1.5.33), a friend such that no other is more so.

The expressions alter ... alter, the one ... the other, alius ... alius, one ... another, may be used in pairs to denote either division of a group or reciprocity of action:

alteri dimicant, alteri victorem timent (Fam. 6.3) , one party fights, the other fears the victor.

alteram alteri praesidio esse iusserat (B. C. 3.89) , he had ordered each (of the two legions) to support the other.

alii gladiis adoriuntur, alii fragmentis saeptorum (Sest. 79) , some make an attack with swords, others with fragments of the railings.

alius ex alio causam quaerit (B. G. 6.37) , they ask each other the reason.

alius alium percontamur (Pl. Stich. 370) , we keep asking each other.

Alius and alter are often used to express one as well as another (the other) of the objects referred to:

alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls.

aliud est maledicere, aliud accusare (Cael. 6) , it is one thing to slander, another to accuse.

Alius repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same stem, expresses briefly a double statement:

alius aliud petit, one man seeks one thing, another another (another seeks another thing).

iussit alios alibi fodere (Liv. 44.33) , he ordered different persons to dig in different places.

alii alio loco resistebant (B. C. 2.39) , some halted in one place, some in another.

VERBS

.Agreement of Verb and Subject

SECTION: #316. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person:

ego statuo, I resolve. senatus decrevit, the senate ordered.

silent leges inter arma (Mil. 11) , the laws are dumb in time of war.

NOTE.--In verb-forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with the subject in gender and number (Sect: 286):

oratio est habita, the plea was delivered. bellum exortum est, a war arose.

A verb having a relative as its subject takes the person of the expressed or implied antecedent:

adsum qui feci (Aen. 9.427) , here am I who did it.

tu, qui scis, omnem diligentiam adhibebis (Att. 5.2.3) , you, who know, will use all diligence.

videte quam despiciamur omnes qui sumus e municipiis (Phil. 3.15) , see how all of us are scorned who are from the free towns.

A verb sometimes agrees in number (and a participle in the verbform in number and gender) with an appositive or predicate noun:

amantium irae amoris integratio est (Ter. And. 555) , the quarrels of lovers are the renewal of love.

non omnis error stultitia dicenda est (Div. 2.90) , not every error should be called folly.

Corinthus lumen Graeciae exstinctum est (cf. Manil. 11), Corinth, the light of Greece, is put out.

.Double or .Collective Subject

SECTION: #317. Two or more Singular Subjects take a verb in the Plural:

pater et avus mortui sunt, his father and grandfather are dead.

NOTE.--So rarely (by synesis, Sect: 280. a) when to a singular subject is attached an ablative with cum: as,-- dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liv. 21.60) , the general and several leading men are taken.

When subjects are of different persons, the verb is usually in the first person rather than the second, and in the second rather than the third:

si tu et Tullia valetis ego et Cicero valemus (Fam. 14.5) , if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well. [Notice that the first person is also first in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.]

NOTE.--In case of different genders a participle in a verb-form follows the rule for predicate adjectives (see Sect: 287. 2-4).

If the subjects are connected by disjunctives (Sect: 223. a), or if they are considered as a single whole, the verb is usually singular:

quem neque fides neque ius iurandum neque illum misericordia repressit (Ter. Ad. 306) , not faith, nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked him.

senatus populusque Romanus intellegit (Fam. 5.8) , the Roman senate and people understand. [But, neque Caesar neque ego habiti essemus ( id. 11.20), neither Caesar nor I should have been considered.]

fama et vita innocentis defenditur (Rosc. Am. 15) , the reputation and life of an innocent man are defended.

est in eo virtus et probitas et summum officium summaque observantia ( Fam. 13.28A. 2), in him are to be found worth, uprightness, the highest sense of duty, and the greatest devotion.

NOTE.--So almost always when the subjects are abstract nouns.

When a verb belongs to two or more subjects separately, it often agrees with one and is understood with the others:

intercedit M. Antonius Q. Cassius tribuni plebis (B. C. 1.2) , Mark Antony and Quintus Cassius, tribunes of the people, interpose.

hoc mihi et Peripatetici et vetus Academia concedit (Acad. 2.113) , this both the Peripatetic philosophers and the Old Academy grant me.

A collective noun commonly takes a verb in the singular; but the plural is often found with collective nouns when individuals are thought of (Sect: 280. a):

(1) senatus haec intellegit (Cat. 1.2) , the senate is aware of this.

ad hiberna exercitus redit (Liv. 21.22) , the army returns to winter-quarters.

plebes a patribus secessit ( Sall. Cat. 33), the plebs seceded from the patricians.

(2) pars praedas agebant (Iug. 32) , a part brought in booty.

cum tanta multitudo lapides conicerent (B. G. 2.6) , when such a crowd were throwing stones.

NOTE 1.--The point of view may change in the course of a sentence: as,-- equitatum omnem ... quem habebat praemittit, qui videant (B. G. 1.15) , he sent ahead all the cavalry he had, to see (who should see).

NOTE 2.--The singular of a noun regularly denoting an individual is sometimes used collectively to denote a group: as, Poenus, the Carthaginians; miles, the soldiery; eques, the cavalry.

Quisque, each, and unus quisque, every single one, have very often a plural verb, but may be considered as in partitive apposition with a plural subject implied (cf. Sect: 282. a):

sibi quisque habeant quod suum est (Pl. Curc. 180) , let every one keep his own (let them keep every man his own).

NOTE.--So also uterque, each (of two), and the reciprocal phrases alius ... alium alter ... alterum (Sect: 315. a).

.Omission of Subject or Verb

SECTION: #318. The Subject of the Verb is sometimes omitted:

A Personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless emphatic:

loquor, I speak. But, ego loquor, it is I that speak.

An indefinite subject is often omitted: crederes, you would have supposed; putamus, we (people) think; dicunt, ferunt, perhibent, they say.

A passive verb is often used impersonally without a subject expressed or understood (Sect: 208. d):

diu atque acriter pugnatum est (B. G. 1.26) , they fought long and vigorously.

SECTION: #319. The verb is sometimes omitted:

Dico, facio, ago, and other common verbs are often omitted in familiar phrases:

quorsum haec [ spectant], what does this aim at?

ex ungue leonem [ cognosces], you will know a lion by his claw.

quid multa, what need of many words? (why should I say much?)

quid? quod, what of this, that ...? (what shall I say of this, that ... ?) [A form of transition.]

Aeolus haec contra; ( Aen. 1.76), Aeolus thus [spoke] in reply.

tum Cotta [ inquit], then said Cotta.

di meliora [duint]! (Cat. M. 47), Heaven forfend (may the gods grant better things)!

unde [ venis] et quo [ tendis]? ( Hor. S. 2.4.1), where from and whither bound? [Cf. id. 1.9.62for the full form.]

The copula sum is very commonly omitted in the present indica tive and present infinitive, rarely (except by late authors) in the sub junctive:

tu coniunx (Aen. 4.113) , you [are] his wife.

quid ergo? audacissimus ego ex omnibus (Rosc. Am. 2) , what then? am I the boldest of all?

omnia praeclara rara (Lael. 79) , all the best things are rare.

potest incidere saepe contentio et comparatio de duobus honestis utrum honestius (Off. 1.152) , there may often occur a comparison of two honorable actions, as to which is the more honorable. [Here, if any copula were expressed, it would be sit, but the direct question would be complete without any.]

accipe quae peragenda prius (Aen. 6.136) , hear what is first to be accomplished. [Direct: quae peragenda prius?]

1 That is, it does not stand first in its clause.

2 As, in taking things one by one off a pile, each thing is uppermost when you take it.

.ADVERBS

SECTION: #320. The proper function of Adverbs, as petrified case-forms, is to modify Verbs: as,--celeriter ire, to go with speed. It is from this use that they derive their name ( adverbium, from ad, to, and verbum, verb; see Sect: 241. b). They also modify adjectives, showing in what manner or degree the quality described is manifested: as, splendide mendax, gloriously false. More rarely they modify other adverbs: as, nimis graviter, too severely. Many adverbs, especially relative adverbs, serve as connectives, and are hardly to be distinguished from conjunctions (see Sect: 20. g. N.).

SECTION: #321. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs.

A Demonstrative or Relative adverb is often equivalent to the corresponding Pronoun with a preposition (see Sect: 308. g):

eo [ = in ea] imponit vasa (Iug. 75) , upon them (thither, thereon, on the beasts) he puts the camp-utensils.

eo milites imponere (B. G. 1.42) , to put soldiers upon them (the horses).

apud eos quo [ = ad quos] se contulit (Verr. 4.38) , among those to whom (whither) he resorted.

qui eum necasset unde [ = quo] ipse natus esset (Rosc. Am. 71) , one who should have killed his own father (him whence he had his birth).

o condiciones miseras administrandarum provinciarum ubi [ = in quibus] severitas periculosa est (Flacc. 87) , O! wretched terms of managing the provinces, where strictness is dangerous.

The participles dictum and factum, when used as nouns, are regularly modified by adverbs rather than by adjectives; so occasionally other perfect participles:

praeclare facta (Nep. Timoth. 1) , glorious deeds (things gloriously done).

multa facete dicta (Off. 1.104) , many witty sayings.

A noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may then be modified by an adverb:

victor exercitus, the victorious army.

admodum puer, quite a boy (young).

magis vir, more of a man (more manly).

populum late regem (Aen. 1.21) , a people ruling far and wide.

NOTE.--Very rarely adverbs are used with nouns which have no adjective force bat which contain a verbal idea:

hinc abitio; (Plaut. Rud. 503), a going away from here.

quid cogitem de obviarr itione (Att. 13.50) , what I think about going to meet (him). [Perhaps felt as a compound.]

A few adverbs appear to be used like adjectives. Such are obviam, palam, sometimes contra, and occasionally others:

fit obviam Clodio; ( Mil. 29), he falls in with (becomes in the way of) Clodius. [Cf. the adjective obvius: as,-- si ille obvius ei futurus non erat ( id. 47), if he was not likely to fall in with him.]

haec commemoro quae sunt palam (Pison. 11) , I mention these facts, which are well-known.

alia probabilia, contra alia dicimus (Off. 2.7) , we call some things probable, others the opposite (not probable). [In this use, contra contradicts a previous adjective, and so in a manner repeats it.]

eri semper lenitas (Ter. And. 175) , my master's constant (always) gentleness. [An imitation of a Greek construction.]

NOTE.--In some cases one can hardly say whether the adverb is treated as an adjective modifying the noun, or the noun modified is treated as an adjective (as in c above).

For propius, pridie, palam, and other adverbs used as prepositions, see Sect: 432.

SECTION: #322. The following adverbs require special notice:

Etiam ( et iam), also, even, is stronger than quoque, also, and usually precedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it:

non verbis solum sed etiam vi; ( Verr. 2.64), not only by words, but also by force.

hoc quoque maleficium (Rosc. Am. 117) , this crime too.

Nuncmeans definitely now, in the immediate present, and is rarely used of the immediate past.

Iam means now, already, at length, presently, and includes a reference to previous time through which the state of things described has been or will be reached. It may be used of any time. With negatives iam means (no) longer.

Tum, then, is correlative to cum, when, and may be used of any time. Tunc, then, at that time, is a strengthened form of tum ( tum-ce, cf. nunc):

ut iam antea dixi, as I have already said before.

si iam satis aetatis atque roboris haberet (Rosc. Am. 149) , if he had attained a suitable age and strength (lit. if he now had, as he will have by and by).

non est iam lenitati locus, there is no longer room for mercy.

quod iam erat institutum, which had come to be a practice (had now been established).

nunc quidem deleta est, tunc florebat (Lael. 13) , now ('t is true) she [Greece] is ruined, then she was in her glory.

tum cum regnabat, at the time when he reigned.

Certo means certainly, certe (usually) at least, at any rate:

certo scio, I know for a certainty; ego certe, I at least.

Primum means first (first in order, or for the first time), and implies a series of events or acts. Primo means at first, as opposed to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the difference of time:

hoc primum sentio, this I hold in the first place.

aedis primo ruere rebamur, at first we thought the house was falling.

NOTE.--In enumerations, primum (or primo) is often followed by deinde, secondly, in the next place, or by tum, then, or by both in succession. Deinde may be several times repeated (secondly, thirdly, etc.). The series is often closed by denique or postremo, lastly, finally. Thus,-- primum de genere belli, deinde de magnitudine, tum de imperatore deligendo (Manil. 6) , first of the kind of war, next of its magnitude, then of the choice of a commander.

Quidem, indeed, gives emphasis, and often has a concessive meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, etc.:

hoc quidem videre licet (Lael. 54) , THIS surely one may see. [Emphatic.]

[ securitas] specie quidem blanda, sed reapse multis locis repudianda ( id. 47), (tranquillity) in appearance, it is true, attractive, but in reality to be rejected for many reasons. [Concessive.]

Ne ... quidem means not even or not ... either. The emphatic word or words must stand between ne and quidem:

sed ne Iugurtha quidem quietus erat (Iug. 51) , but Jugurtha was not quiet either.

ego autem ne irasci possum quidem iis quos valde amo; ( Att. 2.19.1), but I cannot even get angry with those whom I love very much.

NOTE.-- Equidem has the same senses as quidem, but is in Cicero confined to the first person. Thus,-- equidem adprobabo (Fam. 2.3.2) , I for my part shall approve.

.CONJUNCTIONS

\

1 For the derivation and classification of adverbs, see Sect: 214-217.

2 For num-ce; cf. tunc (for *tum-ce).

3 For the classification of conjunctions, see Sect: 223, 224.

SECTION: #323. Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect similar constructions, and are regularly followed by the same case or mood that precedes them:

scriptum senatui et populo; ( Cat. 3.10), written to the senate and people.

ut eas [ partis] sanares et confirmares (Mil. 68) , that you might cure and strengthen those parts.

neque mea prudentia neque humanis consiliis fretus (Cat. 2.29) , relying neither on my own foresight nor on human wisdom.

Conjunctions of Comparison (as ut, quam, tamquam, quasi) also commonly connect similar constructions:

his igitur quam physicis potius credendum existimas (Div. 2.37) , do you think these are more to be trusted than the natural philosophers?

hominem callidiorem vidi neminem quam Phormionem (Ter. Ph. 591) , a shrewder man I never saw than Phormio (cf. Sect: 407).

ut non omne vinum sic non omnis natura vetustate coacescit (Cat. M. 65) , as every wine does not sour with age, so [does] not every nature.

in me quasi in tyrannum (Phil. 14.15) , against me as against a tyrant.

Two or more coordinate words, phrases, or sentences are often put together without the use of conjunctions (Asyndeton, Sect: 601. c):

omnes di, homines, all gods and men.

summi, medii, infimi, the highest, the middle class, and the lowest.

iura, leges, agros, libertatem nobis reliquerunt (B. G. 7.77) , they have left us our rights, our laws, our fields, our liberty.

xxxx

1. Where there are more than two coordinate words etc., a conjunction, if used, is ordinarily used with all (or all except the first):

aut aere alieno aut magnitudine tributorum aut iniuria potentiorum (B. G. 6.13) , by debt, excessive taxation, or oppression on the part of the powerful.

at sunt morosi et anxii et iracundi et difficiles senes (Cat. M. 65) , but (you say) old men are capricious, solicitous, choleric, and fussy.

2. But words are often so divided into groups that the members of the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups themselves express the conjunction (or omit it):

propudium illud et portentum, L. Antonius insigne odium omnium hominum (Phil. 14.8) , that wretch and monster, Lucius Antonius, the abomination of all men.

utrumque egit graviter, auctoritate et offensione animi non acerba; (Lael. 77), he acted in both cases with dignity, without loss of authority and with no bitterness of feeling.

3. The enclitic - que is sometimes used with the last member of a series, even when there is no grouping apparent:

voce voltu motuque (Brut. 110) , by voice, expression, and gesture.

curam consilium vigilantiamque (Phil. 7.20) , care, wisdom, and vigilance.

quorum auctoritatem dignitatem voluntatemque defenderas (Fam. 1.7.2) , whose dignity, honor, and wishes you had defended.

Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly connected by a conjunction:

multae et graves causae, many weighty reasons.

vir liber ac fortis (Rep. 2.34) , a free and brave man.

Often the same conjunction is repeated in two coordinate clauses:

et ... et (- que ... - que), both ... and.

aut ... aut, either ... or.

vel ... vel, either ... or. [Examples in Sect: 324. e.]

sive ( seu) ... sive ( seu), whether ... or. [Examples in Sect: 324. f.]

Many adverbs are similarly used in pairs, as conjunctions, partly or wholly losing their adverbial force:

nunc ... nunc, tum ... tum, iam ... iam, now ... now.

modo ... modo, now ... now.

simul ... simul, at the same time ... at the same time.

qua ... qua, now ... now, both ... and, alike [this] and [that].

modo ait modo negat (Ter. Eun. 714) , now he says yes, now no.

simul gratias agit, simul gratulatur (Q. C. 6.7.15) , he thanks him and at the same time congratulates him.

erumpunt saepe vitia amicorum tum in ipsos amicos tum in alienos (Lael. 76) , the faults of friends sometimes break out, now against their friends themselves, now against strangers.

qua maris qua feminas (Pl. Mil. 1113), both males and females.

Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are used correla tively as conjunctions:

ut (rel.) ... ita, sic ( dem.), as (while) ... so (yet).

tam ( dem.) ... quam (rel.), so (as) ... as.

cum (rel.) ... tum ( dem.), while ... so also; not only ... but also.

SECTION: #324. The following Conjunctions require notice:

Et, and, simply connects words or clauses; - que combines more closely into one connected whole. - que is always enclitic to the word connected or to the first or second of two or more words connected:

cum coniugibus et liberis, with [their] wives and children.

ferro igni que, with fire and sword. [Not as separate things, but as the combined means of devastation.]

aqua et igni interdictus, forbidden the use of water and fire. [In a legal formula, where they are considered separately.]

Atque ( ac), and, adds with some emphasis or with some implied reflection on the word added. Hence it is often equivalent to and so, and yet, and besides, and then. But these distinctions depend very much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often untranslatable:

omnia honesta atque inhonesta, everything honorable and dishonorable (too, without the slightest distinction).

usus atque disciplina, practice and theory beside (the more important or less expected).

atque ego credo, and yet I believe (for my part).

Atque ( ac), in the sense of as, than, is also used after words of comparison and likeness:

simul atque, as soon as.

non secus ( non aliter) ac si, not otherwise than if.

pro eo ac debui, as was my duty (in accordance as I ought).

aeque ac tu, as much as you.

haud minus ac iussi faciunt, they do just as they are ordered.

For and not, see Sect: 328. a.

Sed and the more emphatic verum or vero, but, are used to introduce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after negatives (not this ... but something else). At (old form ast) introduces with emphasis a new point in an argument, but is also used like the others; sometimes it means at least. At enim is almost always used to introduce a supposed objection which is presently to be overthrown. At is more rarely used alone in this sense.

Autem, however, now, is the weakest of the adversatives, and often marks a mere transition and has hardly any adversative force perceptible. Atqui, however, now, sometimes introduces an objection and sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod si, but if, and if, now if, is used to continue an argument.

NOTE.--Et, - que, and atque ( ac) are sometimes used where the English idiom would suggest but, especially when a negative clause is followed by an affirmative clause continuing the same thought: as,-- impetum hostes ferre non potuerunt ac terga verterunt (B. G. 4.35) , the enemy could not stand the onset, but turned their backs.

Aut, or, excludes the alternative; vel (an old imperative of volo) and - ve give a choice between two alternatives. But this distinction is not always observed:

sed quis ego sum aut quae est in me facultas (Lael. 17) , but who am I or what special capacity have I? [Here vel could not be used, because in fact a negative is implied and both alternatives are excluded.]

aut bibat aut abeat (Tusc. 5.118) , let him drink or (if he won't do that, then let him) quit. [Here vel would mean, let him do either as he chooses.]

vita talis fuit vel fortuna vel gloria; (Lael. 12), his life was such either in respect to fortune or fame (whichever way you look at it).

si propinquos habeant imbecilliores vel animo vel fortuna; ( id. 70), if they have relatives beneath them either in spirit or in fortune (in either respect, for example, or in both).

aut deorum aut regum filii; ( id. 70), sons either of gods or of kings. [Here one case would exclude the other.]

implicate Ç vel usu diuturno vel etiam officiis ( id. 85), entangled either by close intimacy or even by obligations. [Here the second case might exclude the first.]

Sive ( seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions (if either ... or if), but also with alternative words and clauses, especially with two names for the same thing:

sive inridens sive quod ita putaret (De Or. 1.91) , either laughingly or because he really thought so.

sive deae seu sint volucres (Aen. 3.262) , whether they (the Harpies) are goddesses or birds.

Vel, even, for instance, is often used as an intensive particle with no alternative force: as,-- vel minimus, the very least.

Nam and namque, for, usually introduce a real reason, formally expressed, for a previous statement; enim (always postpositive), a less important explanatory circumstance put in by the way; etenim (for, you see; for, you know; for, mind you) and its negative neque enim introduce something self-evident or needing no proof.

( ea vita) quae est sola vita nominanda. nam dum sumus inclusi in his compagibus corporis, munere quodam necessitatis et gravi opere perfungimur; est enim animus caelestis, etc. (Cat. M. 77), (that life) which alone deserves to be called life; for so long as we are confined by the body's frame, we perform a sort of necessary function and heavy task. For the soul is from heaven.

harum trium sententiarum nulli prorsus adsentior. nec enim illa prima vera est (Lael. 57) , for of course that first one is n't true.

Ergo, therefore, is used of things proved formally, but often has a weakened force. Igitur, then, accordingly, is weaker than ergo and is used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque, therefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences from the nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. All of these are often used merely to resume a train of thought broken by a digression or parenthesis. Idcirco, for this reason, on this account, is regularly followed (or preceded) by a correlative (as, quia, quod, si, ut, ne), and refers to the special point introduced by the correlative.

malum mihi videtur esse mors. est miserum igitur, quoniam malum. certe. ergo et ei quibus evenit iam ut morerentur et ei quibus eventurum est miseri. mihi ita videtur. nemo ergo non miser. (Tusc. 1.9.) Death seems to me to be an evil. ‰Û÷It is wretched, then, since it is an evil.‰Ûª Certainly. ‰Û÷Therefore, all those who have already died and who are to die hereafter are wretched.‰Ûª So it appears to me. ‰Û÷There is no one, therefore, who is not wretched.‰Ûª

quia natura mutari non potest, idcirco verae amicitiae sempiternae sunt (Lael. 32) , because nature cannot be changed, for this reason true friendships are eternal.

Autem, enim, and vero are postpositive; so generally igitur and often tamen.

Two conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together for the sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what precedes: as, at vero>, but in truth, but surely, still, however; itaque ergo, accordingly then; namque, for; et- enim, for, you see, for of course (Sect: 324. h).

For Conjunctions introducing Subordinate Clauses, see Syntax.

.Negative Particles

\

SECTION: #325. In the use of the Negative Particles, the following points are to be observed:

SECTION: #326. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative:

nemo non audiet, every one will hear (nobody will not hear).

non possum non confiteri; ( Fam. 9.14.1), I must confess.

ut ... ne non timere quidem sine aliquo timore possimus (Mil. 2) , so that we cannot even be relieved of fear without some fear.

Many compounds or phrases of which non is the first part express an indefinite affirmative:

non nullus, some; non nulli; (= aliqui), some few.

non nihil (= aliquid), something.

non nemo; (=aliquot), sundry persons.

non numquam (= aliquotiens), sometimes.

Two negatives of which the second is non (belonging to the predicate) express a universal affirmative:

nemo non, nullus non, nobody [does] not, i.e. everybody [does]. [Cf. non nemo, not nobody, i.e. somebody.]

nihil non, everything. [Cf. non nihil, something.]

numquam non, never not, i.e. always. [Cf. non numquam, sometimes.]

A statement is often made emphatic by denying its contrary (Litotes, Sect: 641):

non semel (= saepissime), often enough (not once only).

non haec sine numine divom eveniunt (Aen. 2.777) , these things do not occur without the will of the gods.

haec non nimis exquiro; ( Att. 7.18.3), not very much, i.e. very little.

NOTE.--Compare non nullus, non nemo, etc., in a above.

SECTION: #327. A general negation is not destroyed:/p>

1. By a following ne ... quidem, not even, or non modo, not only:

numquam tu non modo otium, sed ne bellum quidem nisi nefarium concupisti; ( Cat. 1.25), not only have you never desired repose, but you have never desired any war except one which was infamous.

2. By succeeding negatives each introducing a separate subordinate member:

eaque nesciebant nec ubi nec qualia essent (Tusc. 3.4) , they knew not where or of what kind these things were.

3. By neque introducing a coordinate member:

nequeo satis mirari neque conicere (Ter. Eun. 547) , I cannot wonder enough nor conjecture.

SECTION: #328. The negative is frequently joined with a conjunction or with an indefinite pronoun or adverb. Hence the forms of negation in Latin differ from those in English in many expressions:

nulli ( neutri) credo (not non credo ulli), I do not believe either (I believe neither).

sine ullo periculo; (less commonly cum nullo), with no danger (without any danger).

nihil umquam audivi iucundius, I never heard anything more amusing.

Cf. nego haec esse vera (not dico non esse), I say this is not true (I deny, etc.)

In the second of two connected ideas, and not is regularly expressed by neque ( nec), not by et non:

hostes terga verterunt, neque prius fugere destiterunt (B. G. 1.53) , the enemy turned and fled, and did not stop fleeing until, etc.

NOTE.--Similarly nec quisquam is regularly used for et nemo; neque ullus for et nullus; nec umquam for et numquam; neve (neu), for et ne.

SECTION: #329. The particle immo, nay, is used to contradict some part of a preceding statement or question, or its form; in the latter case, the same statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that immo becomes nearly equivalent to yes (nay but, nay rather):

causa igitur non bona est? immo optima (Att. 9.7.4) , is the cause then not a good one? on the contrary, the best.

Minus, less (especially with si, if, quo, in order that), and minime, least, often have a negative force:

si minus possunt, if they cannot. [For quo minus, see Sect: 558. b.]

audacissimus ego ex omnibus? minime (Rosc. Am. 2) , am I the boldest of them all? by no means (not at all).

.QUESTIONS

Forms of Interrogation

1 That is, they do not stand first in their clause.

2 For a list of Negative Particles see Sect: 217. e.

SECTION: #330. Questions are either Direct or Indirect.

1. A Direct Question gives the exact words of the speaker:

quid est? what is it? ubi sum? where am I?

2. An Indirect Question gives the substance of the question, adapted to the form of the sentence in which it is quoted. It depends on a verb or other expression of asking, doubting, knowing, or the like:

rogavit quid esset, he asked what it was. [Direct: quid est, what is it?]

nescio ubi sim, I know not where I am. [Direct: ubi sum, where am I?]

SECTION: #331. Questions in Latin are introduced by special interrogative words, and are not distinguished by the order of words, as in English.

NOTE.--The form of Indirect Questions (in English introduced by whether, or by an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is in Latin the same as that of Direct; the difference being only in the verb, which in indirect questions is regularly in the Subjunctive (Sect: 574).

SECTION: #332. A question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed by adding the enclitic - ne to the emphatic word:

tune id veritus es (Q. Fr. 1.3.1) , did you fear that?

hicine vir usquam nisi in patria morietur (Mil. 104) , shall this man die anywhere but in his native land?

is tibi mortemne videtur aut dolorem timere (Tusc. 5.88) , does he seem to you to fear death or pain?

The interrogative particle - ne is sometimes omitted:

patere tua consilia non sentis (Cat. 1.1) , do you not see that your schemes are manifest? (you do not see, eh?)

NOTE.--In such cases, as no sign of interrogation appears, it is often doubtful whether the sentence is a question or an ironical statement.

When the enclitic - ne is added to a negative word, as in nonne, an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a negative answer:

nonne animadvertis (N. D. 3.89) , do you not observe?

num dubium est (Rosc. Am. 107) , there is no doubt, is there?

NOTE.--In Indirect Questions num commonly loses its peculiar force and means simply whether.

The particle - ne often when added to the verb, less commonly when added to some other word, has the force of nonne:

meministine me in senatu dicere (Cat. 1.7) , don't you remember my saying in the Senate?

rectene interpretor sententiam tuam (Tusc. 3.37) , do I not rightly interpret your meaning?

NOTE 1.--This was evidently the original meaning of - ne; but in most cases the negative force was lost and - ne was used merely to express a question. So the English interrogative no? shades off into eh?

NOTE 2.--The enclitic - ne is sometimes added to other interrogative words: as, utrumne, whether? anne, or; quantane (Hor. S. 2.3.317) , how big? quone malo ( id. 2.3.295), by what curse?

SECTION: #333. A question concerning some special circumstance is formed by prefixing to the sentence an interrogative pronoun or adverb as in English (Sect: 152):

quid exspectas (Cat. 2.18) , what are you looking forward to?

quo igitur haec spectant (Fam. 6.6.11) , whither then is all this tending?

I care, ubi es (Ov. M. 8.232) , Icarus, where are you?

quod vectigal vobis tutum fuit? quem socium defendistis? cui praesidio classibus vestris fuistis? ( Manil. 32), what revenue has been safe for you? what ally have you defended? whom have you guarded with your fleets?

NOTE.--A question of this form becomes an exclamation by changing the tone of the voice: as,--

qualis vir erat! what a man he was!

quot calamitates passi sumus! how many misfortunes we have suffered!

quo studio consentiunt (Cat. 4.15) , with what zeal they unite!

The particles - nam (enclitic) and tandem may be added to interrogative pronouns and adverbs for the sake of emphasis:

quisnam est, pray who is it? [ quis tandem est? would be stronger.]

ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. 1.9) , where in the world are we?

in qua tandem urbe hoc disputant (Mil. 7) , in what city, pray, do they maintain this?

NOTE--Tandem is sometimes added to verbs:

ain tandem (Fam. 9.21) , you don't say so! (say you so, pray?)

itane tandem uxorem duxit Antipho; ( Ter. Ph. 231), so then, eh? Antipho's got married.

.Double Questions

SECTION: #334. A Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry as to which of two or more supposed cases is the true one.

SECTION: #335. In Double or Alternative Questions, utrum or - ne, whether, stands in the first member; an, anne, or, annon, necne, or not, in the second; and usually an in the third, if there be one:

utrum nescis, an pro nihilo id putas (Fam. 10.26) , is it that you don't know, or do you think nothing of it?

vos ne L. Domitium an vos Domitius deseruit (B. C. 2.32) , did you desert Lucius Domitius, or did Domitius desert you?

quaero servos ne an liberos (Rosc. Am. 74) , I ask whether slaves or free.

utrum hostem an vos an fortunam utriusque populi ignoratis (Liv. 21.10) , is it the enemy, or yourselves, or the fortune of the two peoples, that you do not know?

NOTE.--Anne for an is rare. Necne is rare in direct questions, but in indirect questions it is commoner than annon. In poetry - ne ... - ne sometimes occurs.

The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first member; in which case an or - ne ( anne, necne) may stand in the second:

Gabinio dicam anne Pompeiio an utrique (Manil. 57) , shall I say to Gabinius, or to Pompey, or to both?

sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. 3.41) , are these your words or not?

quaesivi a Catilina in conventu apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. 2.13) , I asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus Laeca's or not.

Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied, and an ( anne) alone asks the question,--usually with indignation or surprise:

an tu miseros putas illos (Tusc. 1.13) , what! do you think those men wretched?

an iste umquam de se bonam spem habuisset, nisi de vobis malam opinionem animo imbibisset (Verr. 1.42) , would he ever have had good hopes about himself unless he had conceived an evil opinion of you?

Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum may ask a question to which there is no alternative:

utrum est in clarissimis civibus is, quem ... (Flacc. 45) , is he among the noblest citizens, whom, etc.?

The following table exhibits the various forms of alternative questions:

utrum ... an ... an

utrum ... annon ( necne, see Sect: 335. N.)

... an ( anne)

- ne ... an

... - ne, necne

- ne ... necne

- ne ... - ne

NOTE.--From double (alternative) questions must be distinguished those which are in themselves single, but of which some detail is alternative. These have the common disjunctive particles aut or vel (- ve). Thus,-- quaero num iniuste aut improbe fecerit (Off. 3.54) , I ask whether he acted unjustly or even dishonestly. Here there is no double question. The only inquiry is whether the man did either of the two things supposed, not which of the two he did.

Question and Answer

SECTION: #336. There is no one Latin word in common use meaning simply yes or no. In answering a question affirmatively, the verb or some other emphatic word is generally repeated; in answering negatively, the verb, etc., with non or a similar negative:

valetne, is he well? valet, yes (he is well).

eratne tecum, was he with you? non erat, no (he was not).

num quidnam novi? there is nothing new, is there? nihil sane, oh! nothing.

An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause is sometimes used to answer a direct question:

1. For YES:

vero, in truth, true, no doubt, yes. ita vero, certainly (so in truth), etc.

etiam, even so, yes, etc. sane quidem, yes, no doubt, etc.

ita, so, true, etc. ita est, it is so, true, etc.

sane, surely, no doubt, doubtless, etc.

certe, certainly, unquestionably, etc.

factum, true, it's a fact, you're right, etc. (lit., it was done).

2. For NO:

non, not so. nullo modo, by no means.

minime, not at all (lit., in the smallest degree, cf. Sect: 329. a).

minime vero, no, not by any means; oh! no, etc.

non quidem, why, no; certainly not, etc.

non hercle vero, why, gracious, no! (certainly not, by Hercules!)

Examples are:

quidnam? an laudationes? ita, why, what? is it eulogies? just so.

aut etiam aut non respondere (Acad. 2.104) , to answer (categorically) yes or no.

estne ut fertur forma? sane (Ter. Eun. 361) , is she as handsome as they say she is? (is her beauty as it is said?) oh! yes.

miser ergo Archelaus? certe si iniustus (Tusc. 5.35) , was Archelaus wretched then? certainly, if he was unjust.

an haec contemnitis? minime (De Or. 2.295) , do you despise these things? not at all.

volucribusne et feris? minime vero (Tusc. 1.104) , to the birds and beasts? why, of course not.

ex tui animi sententia tu uxorem habes? non hercle, ex mei animi sententia; (De Or. 2.260), Lord! no, etc.

SECTION: #337. In answering a double question, one member of the alternative, or some part of it, must be repeated:

vidisti an de audito nuntias?-- egomet vidi; (Plaut. Merc. 902), did you see it or are you repeating something you have heard?--I saw it myself.

CONSTRUCTION OF .CASES

For a list of Interrogative Particles, see Sect: 217. d.

SECTION: #338. The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence. The most primitive way of expressing such relations was by mere juxtaposition of uninflected forms. From this arose in time composition, i.e. the growing together of stems, by means of which a complex expression arises with its parts mutually dependent. Thus such a complex as armi-gero- came to mean arm-bearing; fidi-cen-, playing on the lyre. Later, Cases were formed by means of suffixes expressing more definitely such relations, and Syntax began. But the primitive method of composition still continues to hold an important place even in the most highly developed languages.

Originally the Indo-European family of languages, to which Latin belongs, had at least seven case-forms, besides the Vocative. But in Latin the Locative and the Instrumental were lostexcept in a few words (where they remained without being recognized as cases), and their functions were divided among the other cases.

The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative express the simplest and perhaps the earliest case-relations. The Nominative is the case of the Subject, and generally ends in -s. The Vocative, usually without a termination, or like the Nominative (Sect: 38. a), perhaps never had a suffix of its own.The Accusative, most frequently formed by the suffix -m, originally connected the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily expressed by a verb proper, but as well by a noun or an adjective (see Sect: 386).

The Genitive appears to have expressed a great variety of relations and to have had no single primitive meaning; and the same may be true of the Dative.

The other cases perhaps at first expressed relations of place or direction (TO, FROM, AT, WITH), though this is not clear in all instances. The earlier meanings, however, have become confused with each other, and in many instances the cases are no longer distinguishable in meaning or in form. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost from its confusion with the Dative and Ablative; and its function was often performed by the Ablative, which is freely used to express the place where (Sect: 421). To indicate the case-relations--especially those of place--more precisely, Prepositions (originally adverbs) gradually came into use. The case-endings, thus losing something of their significance, were less distinctly pronounced as time went on (see Sect: 36, phonetic decay), and prepositions have finally superseded them in the modern languages derived from Latin. But in Latin a large and various body of relations was still expressed by caseforms. It is to be noticed that in their literal use cases tended to adopt the preposition, and in their figurative uses to retain the old construction. (See Ablative of Separation, Sect: 402-404; Ablative of Place and Time, Sect: 421 ff.)

The word casus, case, is a translation of the Greek pt?sis, a falling away (from the erect position). The term pt?sis was originally applied to the Oblique Cases (Sect: 35. g), to mark them as variations from the Nominative, which was called orth<, erect ( casus rectus). The later name Nominative ( casus nominativus) is from nomino, and means the naming case. The other case-names (except Ablative) are of Greek origin. The name Genitive ( casus genetivus) is a translation of genik< [ pt?sis], from genos (class), and refers to the class to which a thing belongs. Dative ( casus dativus, from do) is translated from dotik<, and means the case of giving. Accusative ( accusativus, from accuso) is a mistranslation of aitiatik< (the case of causing), from aitia, cause, and meant to the Romans the case of accusing. The name Vocative ( vocativus, from voco) is translated from kl< (the case of calling). The name Ablative ( ablativus, from ablatus, aufero) means taking from. This case the Greek had lost.

.NOMINATIVE CASE

SECTION: #339. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative:

Caesar Rhenum transire decreverat (B. G. 4.17) , Caesar had determined to cross the Rhine.

For the omission of a pronominal subject, see Sect: 295. a.

The nominative may be used in exclamations:

en dextra fidesque (Aen. 4.597) , lo, the faith and plighted word!

ecce tuae litterae de Varrone (Att. 13.16) , lo and behold, your letters aoout Varro!

NOTE.--But the accusative is more common (Sect: 397. d).

.VOCATIVE CASE

SECTION: #340. The Vocative is the case of direct address:

Tiberine pater, te, sancte, precor (Liv. 2.10) , O father Tiber, thee, holy one, I pray.

res omnis mihi tecum erit, Hortensi (Verr. 1.33) , my whole attention will be devoted to you, Hortensius.

A noun in the nominative in apposition with the subject of the imperative mood is sometimes used instead of the vocative:

audi tu, populus Albanus (Liv. 1.24) , hear, thou people of Alba.

The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used in poetry instead of the nominative, where the verb is in the second person:

quo moriture ruis (Aen. 10.811) , whither art thou rushing to thy doom?

censorem trabeate salutas (Pers. 3.29) , robed you salute the censor.

The vocative macte is used as a predicate in the phrase macte esto ( virtute), success attend your (valor):

iuberem te macte virtute esse (Liv. 2.12) , I should bid you go on and prosper in your valor.

macte nova virtute puer (Aen. 9.641) , success attend your valor, boy!

NOTE.--As the original quantity of the final e in macte is not determinable, it may be that the word was an adverb, as in bene est and the like.

.GENITIVE CASE

SECTION: #341. The Genitive is regularly used to express the relation of one noun to another. Hence it is sometimes called the adjective case, to distinguish it from the Dative and the Ablative, which may be called adverbial cases.

The uses of the Genitive may be classified as follows:

I. Genitive with Nouns: 1. Of Possession (Sect: 343).

2. Of Material (Sect: 344).

3. Of Quality (Sect: 345).

4. Of the Whole, after words designating a Part (Partitive, Sect: 346).

5. With Nouns of Action and Feeling (Sect: 348).

II. Genitive with Adjectives: 1. After Relative Adjectives (or Verbals) (Sect: 349).

2. Of Specification (later use) (Sect: 349. d).

III. Genitive with Verbs: 1. Of Memory, Feeling, etc. (Sect: 350, 351, 354).

2. Of Accusing, etc. (Charge or Penalty) (Sect: 352).

GENITIVE WITH NOUNS

SECTION: #342. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive.

This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the preposition of, sometimes by the English genitive (or possessive) case:

libri Ciceronis, the books of Cicero, or Cicero's books.

inimici Caesaris, Caesar's enemies, or the enemies of Caesar.

talentum auri, a talent of gold.

vir summae virtutis, a man of the greatest courage.

But observe the following equivalents:

vacatio laboris, a respite FROM toil.

petitio consulatus, candidacy FOR the consulship.

regnum civitatis, royal power OVER the state.

Possessive Genitive

SECTION: #343. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to which an object, quality, feeling, or action belongs:

Alexandri canis, Alexander's dog.

potentia Pompeii ( Sall. Cat. 19), Pompey's power.

Ariovisti mors (B. G. 5.29) , the death of Ariovistus.

perditorum temeritas (Mil. 22) , the recklessness of desperate men.

NOTE 1.--The Possessive Genitive may denote (1) the actual owner (as in Alexander's dog) or author (as in Cicero's writings), or (2) the person or thing that possesses some feeling or quality or does some act (as in Cicero's eloquence, the strength of the bridge, Catiline's evil deeds). In the latter use it is sometimes called the Subjective Genitive; but this term properly includes the possessive genitive and several other genitive constructions (nearly all, in fact, except the Objective Genitive, Sect: 347).

NOTE 2.--The noun limited is understood in a few expressions:

ad Castoris [ aedes] (Quinct. 17) , at the [ temple] of Castor. [Cf. St. Paul's.]

Flaccus Claudi, Flaccus [slave] of Claudius.

Hectoris Andromache; (Aen. 3.319), Hector's [wife] Andromache.

For the genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjective is often used,--regularly for the possessive genitive of the personal pronouns (Sect: 302. a):

liber meus, my book. [Not liber mei.]

aliena pericula, other men's dangers. [But also aliorum.]

Sullana tempora, the times of Sulla. [Oftener Sullae.]

The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, connected with its noun by a verb (Predicate Genitive):

haec domus est patris mei, this house is my father's.

iam me Pompeii totum esse scis (Fam. 2.13) , you know I am now all for Pompey (all Pompey's).

summa laus et tua et Bruti est (Fam. 12.4.2) , the highest praise is due both to you and to Brutus (is both yours and Brutus's).

compendi facere, to save (make of saving).

lucri facere, to get the benefit of (make of profit).

NOTE.--These genitives bear the same relation to the examples in Sect: 343 that a predicate noun bears to an appositive (Sect: 282, 283).

An infinitive or a clause, when used as a noun, is often limited by a genitive in the predicate:

neque sui iudici [ erat] discernere (B. C. 1.35) , nor was it for his judgment to decide (nor did it belong to his judgment).

cuiusvis hominis est errare (Phil. 12.5) , it is any man's [liability] to err.

negavit moris esse Graecorum, ut in convivio virorum accumberent mulieres (Verr. 2.1.66) , he said it was not the custom of the Greeks for women to appear as guests (recline) at the banquets of men.

sed timidi est optare necem (Ov. M. 4.115) , but't is the coward's part to wish for death.

stulti erat sperare, suadere impudentis (Phil. 2.23) , it was folly (the part of a fool) to hope, effrontery to urge.

sapientis est pauca loqui, it is wise (the part of a wise man) to say little. [Not sapiens (neuter) est, etc.]

NOTE 1.--This construction is regular with adjectives of the third declension instead of the neuter nominative (see the last two examples).

NOTE 2.--A derivative or possessive adjective may be used for the genitive in this construction, and must be used for the genitive of a personal pronoun:

mentiri non est meum [not mei], it is not for me to lie.

humanum [for hominis] est errare, it is man's nature to err (to err is human).

A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in apposition (Appositional Genitive) (Sect: 282):

nomen insaniae (for nomen insania), the word madness.

oppidum Antiochiae (for oppidum Antiochia, the regular form), the city of Antioch.

1 Some of the endings, ho