Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar

>PART FIRST: WORDS AND FORMS

..ALPHABET

NOTE 1.--The Latin alphabet was borrowed in very early times from a Greek alphabet (though not from that most familiar to us) and did not at first contain the letters G and Y. It consisted of capital letters only, and the small letters with which we are familiar did not come into general use until the close of the eighth century of our era.

NOTE 2.--The Latin names of the consonants were as follows:-B, be (pronounced bay); C, ce (pronounced kay); D, de (day); F, ef; G, ge (gay); H, ha; K, ka; L, el; M, em; N, en; P, pe (pay); Q, qu (koo); R, er; S, es; T, te (tay); X, ix; Z, zeta (the Greek name, pronounced dzayta). The sound of each vowel was used as its name.

The character C originally meant G, a value always retained in the abbreviations C. (for Gaius) and Cn. (for Gnaeus).

NOTE.--In early Latin C came also to be used for K, and K disappeared except before a in a few words, as Kal. ( Kalendae), Karthago. Thus there was no distinction in writing between the sounds of g and k. Later this defect was remedied by forming (from C) the new character G. This took the alphabetic place formerly occupied by Z, which had gone out of use. In Cicero's time (see N. D. 2.93), Y (originally a form of V) and Z were introduced from the ordinary Greek alphabet to represent sounds in words derived from the Greek, and they were put at the end of the Latin alphabet.

I and V were used both as vowels and as consonants (see Sect: 5).

NOTE.--V originally denoted the vowel sound u (oo), and F stood for the sound of our consonant w. When F acquired the value of our f, V came to be used for the sound of w as well as for the vowel u.

In this book i is used for both vowel and consonant i, u for vowel u, and v for consonant u:-ius, vir, iuvenis.

..Classification of Sounds

The Diphthongs are ae, au, ei, eu, oe, ui, and, in early Latin, ai, oi, ou. In the diphthongs both vowel sounds are heard, one following the other in the same syllable.

1. The voiced consonants are b, d, g, l, r, m, n, z, consonant i, v.

2. The voiceless consonants are p, t, c (k, q), f, h, s, x.

.LABIALS .DENTALS .PALATALS

Voiced ( mediae) b d g

Mutes Voiceless ( tenues) p t c (k, q)

Aspirates phth ch

Nasals m n n (before c, g, q)

Liquids l, r

Fricatives (Spirants) fs, z

Sibilants s, z

Semivowels v consonant i

Double consonants are x (= cs) and z (= dz); h is merely a breathing.

1. Mutes are pronounced by blocking entirely, for an instant, the passage of the breath through the mouth, and then allowing it to escape with an explosion (distinctly heard before a following vowel). Between the explosion and the vowel there may be a slight puff of breath (h), as in the Aspirates (ph, th, ch).

2. Labials are pronounced with the lips, or lips and teeth.

3. Dentals (sometimes called Linguals) are pronounced with the tip of the tongue touching or approaching the upper front teeth.

4. Palatals are pronounced with a part of the upper surface of the tongue touching or approaching the palate.

5. Fricatives (or Spirants) are consonants in which the breath passes continuously through the mouth with audible friction.

6. Nasals are like voiced mutes, except that the mouth remains closed and the breath passes through the nose.

Consonant i and u (v) are sometimes called Semivowels.

NOTE 1.--The Latin alphabet did not distinguish between the vowel and consonant sounds of i and u, but used each letter ( I and V) with a double value. In modern books i and u are often used for the vowel sounds, j and v for the consonant sounds; but in printing in capitals J and U are avoided: IVLIVS ( Iulius). The characters J and U are only slight modifications of the characters I and V. The ordinary English sounds of j and v did not exist in classical Latin, but consonant u perhaps approached English v in the pronunciation of some persons.

NOTE 2.--In the combinations qu, gu, and sometimes su, u seems to be the consonant (w). Thus, aqua, anguis, consuetus (compare English quart, anguish, suave). In these combinations, however, u is reckoned neither as a vowel nor as a consonant.

.ORTHOGRAPHY

Thus, we find lubet, vorto, as earlier, and libet, verto, as later forms. Other variations are optumus and optimus, gerundus and gerendus.

The spelling of the first century of our era, known chiefly from inscriptions, is tolerably uniform, and is commonly used in modern editions of the classics.

After v (consonant u), o was anciently used instead of u ( voltus, servos), and this spelling was not entirely given up until the middle of the first century of our era.

The older quo became cu in the Augustan period; in the second century of our era the spelling quu established itself in some words:

cum, older quom;equos, ecus, later equus; sequontur, secuntur, later sequuntur; similarly exstinguont, exstingunt, later exstinguunt.

NOTE.--In most modern editions the spelling quu is adopted, except in cum.

Between consonant i and a preceding a, e, o, or u, an i was developed as a transient sound, thus producing a diphthong ai, ei, etc., before the consonant i. In such cases but one i was written: as, aio (for ai-io), maius (for *mai-ius), peius (for *pei-ius).

Similarly in compounds of iacio but one i was written (as, con-icio, not con-iicio); but the usual pronunciation probably showed consonant i followed by vowel i (see Sect: 11. e).

NOTE.--Some variations are due to later changes in Latin itself, and these are not now recognized in classical texts.

1. Unaccented ti and ci, when followed by a vowel, came to be pronounced alike; hence nuntio was later spelled with a c and dicio with a t.

2. The sound of h was after a time lost and hence this letter was often omitted (as, arena for harena) or mistakenly written (as, humor for umor).

3. The diphthong ae early in the time of the Empire acquired the value of long open e (about like English e in there), and similarly oe after a time became a long close e (about like the English ey in they); and so both were often confused in spelling with e: as, coena or caena for the correct form cena.

.SYLLABLES

u

aci-ce, mo-ne, fi-li-us, fe-ro-ci-ta-te.

In the division of words into syllables a single consonant (including consonant i and v) between two vowels is written and pronounced with the following vowel. Doubled consonants are separated:

pa-ter, mi-li-tes, in-iu-ri-a, di-vi-do; mit-to, tol-lo.

NOTE 1.--Some extend the rule for single consonants to any consonant group (as sp, st, gn) that can begin a word. In this book, dix-it, sax-um, etc. are preferred to di-xit, sa-xum; the pronunciation was probably dic-sit, sac-sum.

NOTE 2.--A syllable ending with a vowel or diphthong is called open: all others are called close. Thus in pa-ter the first syllable is open, the second close.

In compounds the parts are separated:

ab-est, ob-latus, dis-cerno, du-plex, di-sto.

.Pronunciation

VOWELS: a as in father

e as in idea

e as eh? (prolonged)

a as in date

e as in eh? (clipped) or e in net.

i as in machine

DIPHTHONGS:

ae like ay

ei as in eight

oe like oy in boy

eu as eh'oo

au like ow in now

ui as oo'ee.

Consonants are the same as in English, except that

c and g are as in come, get, never as in city, gem.

s as in sea, lips, never as in ease.

Consonanta; i is like y in young

v (consonant u) like w in wing.

nasalization of the preceding vowel, which was also lengthened; and final m in an unaccented syllable probably had a similar nasalizing effect on the preceding vowel.

ph, th, ch, are properly like p, t, k, followed by h (which may, for convenience, be neglected); but ph probably became like (or nearly like) f soon after the classical period, and may be so pronounced to distinguish it from p.

z is as dz in adze.

bs is like ps

bt is like pt.

NOTE. Latin is sometimes pronounced with the ordinary English sounds of the letters. The English pronunciation should be used in Roman names occurring in English (as, Julius Caesar); and in familiar quotations, as, e pluribus unum; viva voce; vice versa; a fortiori; veni, vidi, vici, etc.

.QUANTITY

In syllables, quantity is measured from the beginning of the vowel or diphthong to the end of the syllable.

A vowel before another vowel or h is short: as in via, nihil.

A diphthong is long: as in aedes, foedus. So, also, a vowel derived from a diphthong: as in excludo (from *ex-claudo).

A vowel formed by contraction is long: as in nil (from nihil).

A vowel before ns, nf, gn, is long: as in constans, infero, magnus.

NOTE.--But the quantity of the vowel before gn is not certain in all cases.

A vowel before nd, nt, is regularly short: as in amandus, amant.

In this book all vowels known to be long are marked (a, e, etc.), and short vowels are left unmarked (a, e, etc.). Vowels marked with both signs at once occur sometimes as long and sometimes as short.

NOTE.--The Romans sometimes marked vowel length by a stroke above the letter (called an apex), as ^ ; and sometimes the vowel was doubled to indicate length. An I made higher than the other letters was occasionally used for i. But none of these devices came into general use {

A syllable containing a long vowel or a diphthong is said to be long by nature: as, ma-ter, aes, au-a.

A syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants (except a mute before l or r) or by a double consonant (x, z) is said to be long by position, but the vowel is pronounced short: as, est, ter-a, sax-um, Me-zen-tius.

NOTE.--When a consonant is doubled the pronunciation should show this distinctly. Thus in mit-to both t's should be pronounced as in out-talk (not merely a single t as in better).

A syllable containing a short vowel followed by a mute before l or r is properly short, but may be used as long in verse. Such a syllable is said to be common.

NOTE 1.--In syllables long by position, but having a short vowel, the length is partly due to the first of the consonants, which stands in the same syllable with the vowel. In syllables of "common"quantity (as the first syllable of patrem) the ordinary pronunciation was pa-trem, but in verse pat-rem was allowed so that the syllable could become long.

NOTE 2.--In final syllables ending with a consonant, and containing a short vowel, the quantity in verse is determined by the following word: if this begins with a vowel the final consonant is joined to it in pronunciation; if it begins with a consonant the syllable is long by position.

NOTE 3.--In rules for quantity h is not counted as a consonant, nor is the apparently consonantal u in qu, gu, su (see Sect: 5. N. 2).

A syllable whose vowel is a, e, o, or u, followed by consonant i, is long whether the vowel itself is long or short: as, ai-io, mai-ior, pe-ius.

In such cases the length of the syllable is indicated in this book by a circumflex on the vowel.

NOTE.--The length of a syllable before consonant i is due to a transitional sound (vowel i) which forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel: as, ai-o (for ai-io), ma ior (for mai-ior). See Sect: 6. c.

In some compounds of iacio (as, in-icio) the consonant i of the simple verb was probably pronounced (though not written). Thus the first syllable was long by position: as, in-icio (for in-iicio). See Sect: 6. d.

In such cases the length of the syllable is not indicated in this book by a circumflex on the vowel.

When a syllable is long by position the quantity of the vowel is not always determinable. The vowel should be pronounced short unless it is known to be long.

NOTE.--The quantity of a vowel under these circumstances is said to be hidden. It is often determined with a greater or less degree of certainty by inscriptional evidence (see Sect: 10. N.) or by other means. In this book, the quantity of all such vowels known to be long is marked. 7]

.ACCENT

Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult if that is long (as, ami'cus, mone'tur, contin'git); otherwise on the Antepenult (as, do'minus, ala'cris, dissocia'bilis).

When an enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on the syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short: as, dea'que, amare've, tibi'ne, ita'que (and ... so), as distinguished from i'taque (therefore). So (according to some) ex'inde, ec'quando etc.

Exceptions: 1. Certain apparent compounds of facio retain the accent of the simple verb: as, benefa'cit, calefa'cit (see Sect: 266. a).

NOTE.--These were not true compounds, but phrases.

2. In the second declension the genitive and vocative of nouns in -ius and the genitive of those in -ium retain the accent of the nominative: as, Corne'li, Vergi'li, inge'ni (see Sect: 49. c).

3. Certain words which have lost a final vowel retain the accent of the complete words: as, illic for illice, produc for produce, sati'n for sati'sne.

.Combinations

NOTE.--Sometimes a slight change in pronunciation resulted, as, especially in the old poets, before est in homost ( homo est), periculumst ( periculum est), ausust ( ausus est), qualist ( qualis est). Similarly there occur vin', scin' for visne, scisne, sis ( si vis), sodes ( si audes), sultis ( si vultis). Compare in English somebody, to breakfast; he's, I've, thou'rt.

Phonetic Changes

belongs to the same family. The Romance (or Romanic) languages, of which the most important are Italian, French, Provencal, Spanish, Portuguese, and Roumanian, are modern descendants of spoken Latin.

The earliest known forms of Latin are preserved in a few inscriptions. These increase in number as we approach the time when the language began to be used in literature; that is, about B.C. 250. It is the comparatively stable language of the classical period (B.C. 80-A.D. 14) that is ordinarily meant when we speak of Latin, and it is mainly this that is described in this book.

.Vowel Changes

1. The old diphthong ai became the classical ae ( aedilis for old aidilis), old oi became oe or u ( unus for old oinos), and old ou became u ( duco for old douco).

2. In compound verbs the vowel a of the simple verb often appears as i or e, and ae similarly appears as i:

facio, factum, but conficio, confectum; caedo, but occido, and similarly cecidi, perfect of caedo (cf. cado, occido; cecidi, perfect of cado).

NOTE.--This change is commonly ascribed to an accentuation on the first syllable, which seems to have been the rule in Latin before the rule given above (see Sect: 12) became established. The original Indo-European accent, however, was not limited by either of these principles; it was probably a musical accent so-called, consisting in a change of pitch, and not merely in a more forcible utterance of the accented syllable.

3. Two vowels coming together are often contracted:

cogo for co-ago; promo for pro-emo; nil for nihil; debeo for de-hibed ( de-habeo).

.Consonant Changes

4. An old s regularly became r between two vowels (rhotacism), passing first through the sound of (English) z:

eram (cf. est); generis, genitive of genus.

NOTE.--Final s sometimes became r by analogy: as, honor (older honos), from the analogy of honoris, etc.

5. A dental (t, d) often became s, especially when standing next to t, d, or s: as, equestris for equettris, casus for cadtus (cf. 6, below).

6. Many instances of assimilation, partial or complete, are found:

cessi for ced-si; summus for supmus; scriptus for scribtus (b unvoicing to p before the voiceless t); and in compound verbs (see Sect: 16). 9]

Dissimilation, the opposite kind of change, prevented in some cases the repetition of the same sound in successive syllables:

Thus, parilia for palilia (from Pales); meridies for medidi es; naturalis with suffix -alis (after r), but popularis with -aris (after l).

7. Final s was in early Latin not always pronounced; as, plenu fidei.

NOTE.--Traces of this pronunciation existed in Cicero's time. He speaks of the omission of final s before a word beginning with a consonant as "countrified"( subrusticum).

8. A final consonant often disappears: as, virgo for virgon; lac for lact; cor for cord.

9. G, c, and h unite with a following s to form x: as, rex for regs; dux for ducs; traxi for trahsi.

10. G and h before t become c: as, rectum for regtum; actum for agtum; tractum for *trahtum. /p>

11. Between m and s or m and t, a p is often developed: as, sumpsi for sumsi; emptum for emtum.

There is good authority for many complete or partial assimilations; as, for ad, acc-, agg-, app-, att-, instead of adc-, adg-, etc. Before a labial consonant we find com- (comb-, comp-, comm-), but con- is the form before c, d, f, g, cons. i, q, s, t, cons. v; we find conl- or coll-, conr- or corr-; co- in conecto, coniveo, conitor, conubium. In usually changes to im- before p, b, m. Ob and sub may assimilate b to a following c, f, g, or p; before s and t the pronunciation of prepositions ending in b doubtless had p; surr-, summ-, occur for subr-, subm-. The inseparable amb- loses b before a consonant. Circum often loses its m before i. The s of dis becomes r before a vowel and is assimilated to a following f; sometimes this prefix appears as di-. Instead of ex we find ef- before f (also ecf-). The d of red and sed is generally lost before a consonant. The preposition is better left unchanged in most other cases.

.Vowel Variations

This variation is often called by the German name Ablaut. It has left considerable traces in the forms of Latin words, appearing sometimes as a difference of quantity in the same vowel (as, u, u; e, e), sometimes as a difference in the vowel itself (as, e, o; i, ae): 12

tego, I cover, toga, a robe; pendo, I weigh, pondus, weight; fides, faith, fidus, faithful, foedus, a treaty; miser, wretched, maestus, sad; dare, to give, donum, a gift; rego, I rule, rex, a king; dux, a leader, duco (for older douco), I lead. Compare English drive, drove (drave), driven; bind, bound, band; sing, sang, sung; etc.

.Kindred .Cognate Forms

LATIN ---------------------------ENGLISH

p: ------------pater // f: ------ father, earlier fader /p>

f from bh: ------ fero, frater // -b: to bear, brother

b from bh: ------ lubet, libet v, // f: love, lief

t: tu, ------ tenuis // th: thou, thin /p>

d: ------ duo, dent- // t: -- two, tooth

f from dh:------ facio // d: do

d from dh:------ medius // d: mid

b from dh: ------ ruber // d: red

c: ------ ------ cord-, cornu // h: heart, horn

qu: ---------------quod // wh: what

g:------ ------ genus, gustus // c, k, ch:------ kin, choose

h (from gh): ----- hortus, haedus // y, g: yard, goat

cons. i: ------ iugum // y: yoke

v: ------ ------ --ventus, ovis // w: wind, ewe

v from gv:------ vivus (for *gvivos), venio (for gvemio ). qu, c, k: // quick, come

NOTE 1.--Sometimes a consonant lost in Latin is still represented in English: as, niv- (for sniv-), Eng. snow; a nser (for hanser), Eng. goose.

NOTE 2.--From these cases of kindred words in Latin and English must be carefully distinguished those cases in which the Latin word has been taken into English either directly or through some one of the modern descendants of Latin, especially French. Thus facio is kindred with Eng. do, but from the Latin participle ( factum) of this verb comes Eng. fact, and from the French descendant (fait) of factum comes Eng. feat.

1 Strictly, a labio-dental, pronounced with the under lip touching the upper teeth.

2 The aspirates are almost wholly confined to words borrowed from the Greek. In early Latin such borrowed sounds lost their aspiration and became simply p, t, c.

3 Palatals are often classed as (1) velars, pronounced with the tongue touching or rising toward the soft parate (in the back part of the mouth), and (2) palatals, in which the tongue touches crrises toward the hard palate (farther forward in the mouth). Compare the initial consonants in key and cool, whispering the two words, and it will be observed that before e and i the k is sounded farther forward in the mouth than before a, o, or u

4 Compare the English word Indian as pronounced in two syllables or in three.

5 In such words it is possible that the preceding consonant was labialized and that no distinct and separate consonant u was heard.

6 The spelling quum is very late and without authority.

7 The Penult is the last syllable but one; the Antepenult, the last but two.

8 A similar change can be seen in English: as, were (cf. was), lorn (cf. lose).

9 Really for *traghsi. The h of traho represents an older palatal sound (see Sect: 19).

10 Really for traghtum. These are cases of partial assimilation (cf. 6, above).

11 This variation was not without regularity, but was confined within definite limits.

12 In Greek, however, it is more extensively preserved.

13 The Indo-European parent speech had among its consonants voiced aspirates (bh, dh, gh). All these suffered change in Latin, the most important results being, for bh, Latin f, b (English has b, v, or f); for dh, Latin f, b, d (English has d); for gh, Latin h, g ( English has y, g). The other mutes suffered in Latin much less change, while in English, as in the other Germanic languages, they have all changed considerably in accordance with what has been called Grimm's Law for the shifting of mutes.

14 Theth in father is a late development. The older form fader seems to show an exception to the rule that Englishth corresponds to Latin t. The primitive Germanic form was doubtless in accordance with this rule, but, on account of the position of the accent, which in Germanic was not originally on the first syllable in this word, the consonant underwent a secondary change to d.

15 But to the group st of Latin corresponds also English st; as in Latin sto, English stand.

.PARTS OF SPEECH

A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea: as, Caesar; Roma, Rome; domus, a house; virtus, virtue.

Names of particular persons and places are called Proper Nouns; other nouns are called Common.

NOTE.--An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality or idea: as, audacia, boldness; senectus, old age. A Collective Noun is the name of a group, class, or the like: as, turba, crowd; exercitus, army.

An Adjective is a word that attributes a quality: as, bonus, good; fortis, brave, strong.

NOTE 1.--A Participle is a word that attributes quality like an adjective, but, being derived from a verb, retains in some degree the power of the verb to assert: as, Caesar consul creatus, Caesar having been elected consul.

NOTE 2.--Etymologically there is no difference between a noun and an adjective, both being formed alike. So, too, all names originally attribute quality, and any common name can still be so used. Thus, King William distinguishes this William from other Williams, by the attribute of royalty expressed in the name king.

A Pronoun is a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing, or idea without either naming or describing it: as, is, he; qui, who; nos, we.

Nouns and pronouns are often called Substantives.

A Verb is a word which is capable of asserting something: as, sum, I am; amat, he loves.

NOTE.--In all modern speech the verb is usually the only word that asserts anything, and a verb is therefore supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion. Strictly, however, any adjective or noun may, by attributing a quality or giving a name, make a complete assertion. In the infancy of language there could have been no other means of asserting, as the verb is of comparatively late development.

An Adverb is a word used to express the time, place, or manner of an assertion or attribute: as, splendide mendax, gloriously false; hodie natus est, he was born to-day.

NOTE.--These same functions are often performed by cases (see Sect: 214-217) of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, and by phrases or sentences. In fact, all adverbs were originally cases or phrases, but have become specialized by use.

A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun or pronoun and some other word or words in the same sentence: as, per agros it, he goes over the fields; e pluribus unum, one out of many.

NOTE.--Most prepositions are specialized adverbs (cf. Sect: 219). The relations expressed by prepositions were earlier expressed by case-endings.

A Conjunction is a word which connects words, or groups of words, without affecting their grammatical relations: as, et, and; sed, but.

NOTE.--Some adverbs are also used as connectives. These are called Adverbial Conjunctions or Conjunctive (Relative) Adverbs: as, ubi, where; donec, until.

Interjections are mere exclamations and are not strictly to be classed as parts of speech. Thus,--heus, halloo! o, oh!

NOTE.--Interjections sometimes express an emotion which affects a person or thing mentioned, and so have a grammatical connection like other words: as, vae victis, woe to the conquered (alas for the conquered)!

.INFLECTION

Inflection is a change made in the form of a word to show its grammatical relations.

Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or at the beginning, but oftener in its termination:

vox, a voice; vocis, of a voice; voco, I call; vocat, he calls; vocet, let him call; vocavit, he has called; tangit, he touches; tetigit, he touched.

Terminations of inflection had originally independent meanings which are now obscured. They correspond nearly to the use of prepositions, auxiliaries, and personal pronouns in English.

Thus, in vocat, the termination is equivalent to he or she; in vocis, to the preposition of; and in vocet the change of vowel signifies a change of mood.

Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relations of tense or mood, and often correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in English:

frangit, he breaks or is breaking; fregit, he broke or has broken; mordet, he bites; momordit, he bit.

The inflection of Verbs to denote voice, mood, tense, number, and person is called Conjugation, and the verb is said to be conjugated.

NOTE.--Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison. These are, however, properly stem-formations made by derivation (p. 55, footnote).

NOTE.--The term Particle is sometimes limited to such words as num, - ne, an (interrogative), non, ne (negative), si (conditional), etc., which are used simply to indicate the form or construction of a sentence.

.Root, Stem, and Base

The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations; but, except in the first part of a compound (as, arti-fex, artificer), it cannot ordinarily be used without some termination to express them.

Thus the stem voc- denotes voice; with -s added it becomes vox, a voice or the voice, as the subject or agent of an action; with -is it becomes vocis, and signifies of a voice.

NOTE.--The stem is in many forms so united with the termination that a comparison with other forms is necessary to determine it.

Such a form contains the main idea of the word in a very general sense, and is common also to other words either in the same language or in kindred languages.

Thus the root of the stem voc-is voc, which does not mean to call, or I call, or calling, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of calling, and cannot be used as a part of speech without terminations. With a-it becomes voca-, the stem of vocare (to call); with av-it is the stem of vocavit (he called); with ato- it becomes the stem of vocatus (called); with ation- it becomes the stem of vocationis (of a calling). With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of vox, voc-is (a voice: that by which we call). This stem voc-, with -alis added, means belonging to a voice; with -ula, a little voice.

NOTE.--In inflected languages, words are built up from Roots, which at a very early time were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese. Roots are modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become fully formed words. The process by which roots are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called Stem-building. The whole of this process is originally one of composition, by which significant endings are added one after another to forms capable of pronunciation and conveying a meaning.

Roots had long ceased to be recognized as such before the Latin existed as a separate language. Consequently the forms which we assume as Latin roots never really existed in Latin, but are the representatives of forms used carlier.

1. By changing or lengthening its vowel: as in scob-s, sawdust (SCAB, shave); reg-is, of a king (REG, direct); voc-is, of a voice (VOC, call).

2. By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root): as in fuga-, stem of fuga, flight (FUG + a-); regi-s, you rule (REG + stem-ending e/o-); sini-t, he allows (SI + ne/o-).

3. By two or more of these methods: as in duci-t, he leads (DUC + stemending e/o-).

4. By derivation and composition, following the laws of development peculiar to the language. (See Sect: 227 ff.)

The Base and the Stem are often identical, as in many consonant stems of nouns (as, reg- in reg-is). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the inflectional termination. Thus the stem of servus is servo-; that of mensa, mensa-; that of ignis, igni-.

1 The only proper inflections of verbs are those of the personal endings; and the changes here referred to are strictly changes of stem, but have become a part of the system of inflections.

2 Another exception is the imperative second person singular in -e (as, rege).

3 For example, the root STA is found in the Sanskrit <

>, Latin sistere and stare, German fteben, and English stand.

4 These suffixes are Indo-European stem-endings.

.GENDER

Natural Gender is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted: as, puer (M.), boy; puella (F.), girl; rex (M.), king; regina (F.), queen.

NOTE 1.--Many nouns have both a masculine and a feminine form to distinguish sex: as, cervus, cerva, stag, doe; cliens, clienta, client; victor, victrix, conqueror.

Many designations of persons (as nauta, sailor) usually though not necessarily male are always treated as masculine. Similarly names of tribes and peoples are masculine: as, Romani, the Romans; Persae, the Persians.

NOTE 2.--A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belonging to a class: as, mancipium , your slave (your chattel).

Many petenames of girls and boys are neuter in form: as, Paegnium, Glycerium.

NOTE 3.--Names or classes or collections of persons may be of any gender: as, exercitus (M.), acies (F.), and agmen (N.), army; operae (F. plur.), workmen; copiae (F. plur.), troops, senatus (M.), senate; cohors (F.), cohort; concilium (N.), council.

Grammatical Gender is a formal distinction as to sex where no actual sex exists in the object. It is shown by the form of the adjective joined with the noun: as, lapis magnus (M.), a great stone; manus mea (F.), my hand.

.Gender (grammatical)

pater, father; Iulius, Julius; Tiberis, the Tiber; auster, south wind; Ianuarius, January; Apenninus, the Apennines.

NOTE.--Names of Months are properly adjectives, the masculine noun mensis, month, being understood: as, Ianuarius, January.

A few names of Rivers ending in - a (as, Allia), with the Greek names Lethe and Styx, are feminine; others are variable or uncertain.

Some names of Mountains are feminine or neuter, taking the gender of their termination: as, Alpes (F.), the Alps; Soracte (N.).

mater, mother; Iulia, Julia; Roma, Rome; Italia, Italy; rosa, rose; pinus, pine; sapphirus, sapphire; anas, duck; veritas, truth.

Some names of Towns and Countries are masculine: as, Sulmo, Gabii (plur.); or neuter as, Tarentum, Illyricum.

A few names of Plants and Gems follow the gender of their termination: as, centaureum (N.), centaury; acanthus (M.), bearsfoot; opalus (M.), opal.

NOTE.--The gender of most of the above may also be recognized by the terminations, according to the rules given under the several declensions. The names of Roman women were usually feminine adjectives denoting their gens or house (see Sect: 108. b).

fas, right; nihil, nothing; gummi, gum; scire tuum, your knowledge (to know); triste vale, a sad farewell; hoc ipsum, this very thing; diu, very long

NOTE.--Several names of animals have a grammatical gender, independent of sex. These are called epicene. Thus lepus, hare, is always masculine, and vulpes, fox, is always feminine.

.NUMBER AND CASE

Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Participles are declined in two Numbers, singular and plural; and in six Cases, nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, vocative.

The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a sentence.

The Genitive may generally be translated by the English Possessive, or by the Objective with the preposition of.

The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object (Sect: 274). It may usually be translated by the Objective with the preposition to or for.

The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object of a verb (Sect: 274). It is used also with many of the prepositions.

The Ablative may usually be translated by the Objective with from, by, with, in, or at. It is often used with prepositions.

The Vocative is the case of Direct Address.

All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, are used as objectcases; and are sometimes called Oblique Cases ( casus obliqui).

In names of towns and a few other words appear traces of another case (the Locative), denoting the place where: as, Romae, at Rome; ruri, in the country.

NOTE.--Still another case, the Instrumental, appears in a few adverbs (Sect: 215. 4).

.DECLENSION OF NOUNS

Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be classed with them; but they have several peculiarities of inflection (see Sect: 109 ff.).

.DECLENSIONS OF THE 5 Types

SING.

Decl. 1 Nom sg. -a

Decl. 2 Nom sg.- -o/u

Decl. 2 Nom sg. --

Decl. 3 Nom sg. -u

Decl. 4 Nom sg. -ie

PLUR.

Decl. 1 Gen Sg. -ae

Decl. 2 Gen Sg. -rum

Decl. 3 Gen Sg. -is

Decl. 4 Gen Sg. -us

Decl. 5 Gen Sg. -ies

The Stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant stem, by Decl. 3 omitting the case-ending; if a vowel stem, by substituting Decl. 4 for the case-ending the characteristic vowel.

The Vocative is always the same as the Nominative, except in the singular of nouns and adjectives in -us of the second declension, which have - e in the vocative. It is not included in the paradigms, unless it differs from the nominative.

In neuters the Nominative and Accusative are always alike, and in the plural end in -a.

The Accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in -m; the Accusative plural in -s.

In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) the Dative singular ends in -i.

The Dative and Ablative plural are always alike.

The Genitive plural always ends in -um.

Final -i, -o, -u of inflection are always long; final -a is short, except in the Ablative singular of the first declension; final -e is long in the first and fifth declensions, short in the second and third. Final -is and -us are long in plural cases.

.Case-endings of the Five Declensions

Endings of the Five Declensions

.FIRST DECLENSION (a-STEMS)

stella, F., star

STEM stella-

SINGULAR

Nom stella

Gen. stellae

Dat. stellae

Acc. stellam

Abl. stella

Voc. stella

PLURAL

Nom stellae

Gen. stellarum

Dat. stellis

Acc. stellas

Abl. stellis

Voc. stellae

The Latin has no article; hence stella may mean a star, the star, or simply star.

.Gender in the First Declension

Exceptions: Nouns masculine from their signification: as, nauta, sailor. So a few family or personal names: as, Murena, Dolabella, Scaevola; also, Hadria, the Adriatic.

Case-Forms in the First Declension

An old genitive in -as is preserved in the word familias, often used in the combinations pater ( mater, filius, filia) familias, father, etc., of a family (plur. patres familias or familiarum).

The Locative form for the singular ends in -ae; for the plural in - is (cf. p. 34, footnote): as, Romae, at Rome; Athenis, at Athens.

The genitive plural is sometimes found in -um instead of -arum, especially in Greek patronymics, as, Aeneadum, sons of Aeneas, and in compounds with -cola and -gena, signifying dwelling and descent: as, caelicolum, celestials; Troiugenum, sons of Troy; so also in the Greek nouns amphora and drachma.

The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter, end in an older form -abus (deabus, filiabus) to distinguish them from the corresponding cases of deus, god, and filius, son ( deis, filiis). So rarely with other words, as, liberta, freed-woman; mula, she-mule; equa, mare. But, except when the two sexes are mentioned together (as in formulas, documents, etc.), the form in -is is preferred in all but dea and filia.

NOTE 1.--The old ending of the ablative singular (-ad) is sometimes retained in early Latin: as, praidad, booty (later, praeda).

NOTE 2.--In the dative and ablative plural -eis for -is is sometimes found, and -iis (as in taeniis) is occasionally contracted to -is (taenis); so regularly in words in -aia (as, Bais from Baiae).

Greek Nouns of the First Declension

SINGULAR

Nom musicae

Dat. musicae

Acc. musicam

Abl. musica

Voc. musicae

SINGULAR

Nom eptome

Gen. epitomes

Dat. epitome

Acc. epitomen

Abl. epitome

Voc.

SINGULAR

Nom Aeneas

Gen. Aeneae

Dat. Aeneae

Acc. Aenean

Abl. Aenea

Voc. Aenea

PLURAL

Nom Aeneadae

Gen. Aeneadarum

Dat. Aeneadis

Acc. Aeneadas

Abl. Aeneadis

Voc. Aeneadae

There are (besides proper names) about thirty-five of these words, several being names of plants or arts: as, crambe, cabbage; musice, music. Most have also regular Latin forms: as, cometa; but the nominative sometimes has the a long.

Greek forms are found only in the singular; the plural, when it occurs, is regular: as, cometae, -arum, etc.

Many Greek nouns vary between the first, the second, and the third declensions: as, Bootae (genitive of Bootes, -is), Thucydidas (accusative plural of Thucydides, -is). See Sect: 52. a and Sect: 81.

NOTE.--The Greek accusative Scipiadam, from Scipiades, descendant of the Scipios, is found in Horace.

1 Scaevola is really a feminine adjective, used as a noun, meaning little left hand; but, being used as the name of a man (originally a nickname), it became masculine. Original genders are often thus changed by a change in the sense of a noun.

.SECOND DECLENSION (o-STEMS)

The Nominative is formed from the stem by adding s in masculines and feminines, and m in neuters, the vowel o being weakened to u (see Sect: 6. a, 46. N.1).

In most nouns whose stem ends in ro- the s is not added in the Nominative, but o is lost, and e intrudes before r,if not already present: as, ager, stem agro-; cf. puer, stem puero-.

Exceptions: erus, hesperus, iuniperus, morus, numerus, taurus, umerus, uterus, virus, and many Greek nouns.

The stem-vowel o has a variant form e,which is preserved in the Latin vocative singular of nouns in -us: as, serve, vocative of servus, slave.

NOTE.--In composition this -e- appears as -i. Thus,--belli- ger, warlike (from bell- o/e-, stem of bellum, war).

servus, M., slave bellum, N., war Pompeiius, M., Pompey

STEM servo- STEM bello- STEM Pompeio-

Masculine. . servus (- os) -

SINGULAR

Nom servus (os)

Gen. servi

Dat. servo

Acc. servum (-om)

Abl. servo

Voc. serve

PLURAL

Nom servi

Gen. servorum

Dat. servis

Acc. servos

Abl. servis

Voc. servi

Neuter

SINGULAR

Nom bellum

Gen. belli

Dat. bello

Acc. bellum

Abl. bello

Voc. bellum

PLURAL

Nom bella

Gen. bellorum

Dat. bellis

Acc. bella

Abl. bellis

Voc. bella

NOTE 1.--The earlier forms for nominative and accusative were - os, -om, and these were always retained after u and v up to the end of the Republic. The terminations s and m are sometimes omitted in inscriptions: as, Cornelio for Cornelios, Corneliom.

NOTE 2.--Stems in quo-, like equo-, change qu to c before u. Thus,--ecus (earlier equos), equi, equo, ecum (earlier equom), eque. Modern editions disregard this principle.

puer, M., boy ager, M., field vir, M., man

STEM Masc.puero- STEM Masc.viro-

SINGULAR

Nom puer

Gen. pueri

Dat. puero

Acc. puerum

Abl. puero

Voc. puere

PLURAL

Nom pueri

Gen. puerorum-

Dat. pueris

Acc. pueros

Abl. pueris

Voc. pueri

SINGULAR

Nom vir

Gen. viri

Dat. viro

Acc. virum

Abl. viro

Voc. vir

PLURAL

Nom viri

Gen. virorum

Dat. viris

Acc. viros

Abl. viris

Voc. viri

NOTE.--When e belongs to the stem, as in puer, it is retained throughout; other, wise it appears only in the nominative and vocative singular, as in ager.

Gender in the Second Declension

Exceptions: Names of countries and towns in -us (- os) are Feminine: as, Aegyptus, Corinthus. Also many names of plants and gems, with the following: alvus, belly; carbasus, linen (pl. carbasa, sails, N.); colus, distaff; humus, ground: vannus, winnowing-shovel.

Many Greek nouns retain their original gender: as, arctus (F.), the Polar Bear; methodus (F.), method.

The following in -us are Neuter; their accusative (as with all neuters) is the same as the nominative: pelagus, sea; virus, poison; vulgus (rarely M.), the crowd. They are not found in the plural, except pelagus, which has a rare nominative and accusative plural pelage.

NOTE.--The nominative plural neuter cete, sea monsters, occurs; the nominative singular cetus occurs in Vitruvius.

Case-Forms in the Second Declension

The genitive of nouns in - ius or -ium ended, until the Augustan Age, in a single - i: as, fili, of a son; Pompeii, of Pompey ( Pompeiius); but the accent of the nominative is retained: as, inge' ni, of genius.

Proper names in - ius have - i in the vocative, retaining the accent of the nominative: as, Vergi'li. So also, filius, son; genius, divine guardian: as, audi, mi fili, hear, my son.

Adjectives in -ius form the vocative in -ie, and some of these are occasionally used as nouns: as, Lacedaemonie, O Spartan.

NOTE.--Greek names in -ius have the vocative -ie: as, Lyrcius, vocative Lyrcie.

The genitive plural often has -um or (after v) -om (cf. Sect: 6. a) instead of - orum, especially in the poets: as, deum, superum, divom, of the gods; virum, of men. Also in compounds of vir, and in many words of money, measure, and weight: as, Sevirum, of the Seviri; nummum, of coins; iugerum, of acres.

The original ending of the ablative singular (-o d) is sometimes found in early Latin: as, Gnaivod (later, Gnaeo), Cneius.

Proper names in -aius, - eiius, -eius (as, Aurunculeiius, Boi), are declined like Pompeiius. (N Sg deus N.Pl dei

NOTE.--The vocative singular of deus does not occur in classic Latin, but is said to have been dee; deus (like the nominative) occurs in the Vulgate. For the genitive plural, divum or divom (from divus, divine) is often used.

adulter, adulterer; gener, son-in-law; puer, boy;

socer, father-in-law; vesper, evening; Liber, Bacchus.

Also, the adjective liber, free, of which liberi, children, is the plural (Sect: 111. a), and compounds in - fer and -ger (stem fero-, gero-): as, lucifer, morning star; armiger, squire.

An old nominative socerus occurs. So vocative puere, boy, as if from *puerus (regularly puer).

Vir, man, has genitive viri; the adjective satur, sated, has saturi; vesper, evening, has ablative vespere (locative vesperi, in the evening).

Mulciber, Vulcan, has -beri and -bri in the genitive. The barbaric names Hiber and Celtiber retain e throughout.

ager, field, stem agro-; coluber, snake; magister, master;

aper, boar; conger, sea eel; minister, servant;

arbiter, judge; culter, knife; oleaster, wild olive;

auster, south wind; faber, smith; onager (-grus), wild ass;

cancer, crab; fiber, beaver; scomber (-brus), mackerel.

caper, goat; liber, book;

Greek Nouns of the Second Declension

They are mostly proper names and are declined as follows in the Singular, the Plural, when found, being regular:

SINGULAR

Nom Del os

Gen. Deli

Dat. Delo

Acc. Delon

Abl. Delo

Voc. Del e

SINGULAR

Nom Ilion

Gen. Ilii

Dat. Ilio

Acc. Ilion

Abl. Ilio

Voc. Ilion

Many names in - es belonging to the third declension have also a genitive in - i: as, Thucydides, Thucydidi (compare Sect: 44. b).

Several names in -er have also a nominative in -us: as, Teucer or Teucrus. The name Panthus has the vocative Panthu (Sect: 81. 3).

The genitive plural of certain titles of books takes the Greek termination -on: as, Georgicon, of the Georgics.

The termination -oe (for Greek -oi) is sometimes found in the nominative plural: as, Adelphoe, the Adelphi (a play of Terence).

Greek names in -eus (like Orpheus) have forms of the second and third declensions (see Sect: 82).

1 Compare the English chamber from French chambre.

2 Compare Greek agros, which shows the original o of the stem.

3 By so-called Ablaut (see Sect: 17. a).

4 The genitive in -ii occurs once in Virgil, and constantly in Ovid, but was probably unknown to Cicero.

.THIRD DECLENSION (CONSONANT AND i-STEMS)

a, e, i, o, y, c, l, n, r, s, t, x.

I. Consonant Stems a. Mute stems. b. Liquid and Nasal stems.

II. I-Stems a. Pure i-stems. b. Mixed i-stems.

The variety in form in the Nominative is due to simple modi fications of the stem, of which the most important are.

1. Combination of final consonants: as of c (or g) and s to form x; dux, ducis, stem duc-; rex, regis, stem reg-.

2. Omission of a final consonant: as of a final nasal; leo, leonis, stem leon-; oratio, orationis, stem o ration-.

3. Omission of a final vowel: as of final i; calcar, calcaris, stem calca ri-.

4. Change of vowel in the final syllable : as of a to e; princeps (for -caps), principis, stem princip- (for -cap-).

.CONSONANT STEMS

Mute Stems

A labial (p) is retained before s: as, princep- s.

A lingual (t, d) is dropped before s: as, miles (stem milit-), custos (stem custod-).

A palatal (c, g) unites with s to form x: as, dux (for *duc-s), rex (for reg-s).

In dissyllabic stems the final syllable often shows e in the nominative and i in the stem: as, princeps, stem princip- (for -cap-).

princeps, C., chief radix, F., root miles, M., soldier

STEM princip- "chief"

SINGULAR

Nom princeps

Gen. princip is

Dat. princip i

Acc. princip em

Abl. princip e

Voc. princeps

PLURAL

Nom princip es

Gen. preincipum

Dat. principibus

Acc. princip es

Abl. principibus

Voc. princip es

SINGULAR

Nom radix

Gen. radic is

Dat. radic i

Acc. radic em

Abl. radic e

Voc. radix

PLURAL

Nom radic es

Gen. rade cum

Dat. radicibus

Acc. radic es

Abl. radicibus

Voc. radic es

SINGULAR

Nom miles

Gen. milit is

Dat. milit i

Acc. milit em

Abl. milit e

Voc. miles

PLURAL

Nom milit es

Gen. militum

Dat. militibus

Acc. milit es

Abl. militibus

Voc. milit es

SINGULAR

Nom custos

Gen. custod is

Dat. custod i

Acc. custod em

Abl. custod e

Voc.

PLURAL

Nom custod es

Gen. custodum

Dat. custodibus

Acc. custod es

Abl. custodibus

Voc. custod es

SINGULAR

Nom dux

Gen. ducis

Dat. duci

Acc. ducem

Abl. duce

Voc. dux

PLURAL

Nom duces

Gen. ducum

Dat. ducibus

Acc. duces

Abl. ducibus

Voc. duc es

SINGULAR

Nom rex

Gen. reg s

Dat. regi

Acc. regem

Abl. rege

Voc. rex

PLURAL

Nom reges

Gen. regum

Dat. regibus

Acc. reges

Abl. regibus

Voc. reges

In like manner are declined--

aries, - etis (M.), ram; comes, - itis (c.), companion; lapis, -idis (M.), stone; iudex, -icis (M.), judge; cornix, -icis (F.), raven, and many other nouns.

Lingual Stems (t, d) ending in two consonants drop the final mute: as, cor (stem cord-), lac (stem lact-). So also stems in ea t- from the Greek: as, poe ma (stem poemat-).

The stem capit- shows u in the nominative (caput for capot).

cor, N., heart caput, N., head poema, N., poem

STEM cord- STEM capit- STEM poemat-

SINGULAR

Nom cor

Gen. cordis

Dat. cord i

Acc. cor

Abl. corde

Voc. cor

PLURAL

Nom cord a

Gen. cordum

Dat. cordibus

Acc. cord a

Abl. cordibus

Voc. cord a

SINGULAR

Nom caput

Gen. capitis

Dat. capiti

Acc. caput

Abl. capite

Voc. caput

PLURAL

Nom capita

Gen. capiyum

Dat. capitibus

Acc. capita

Abl. capitibus

Voc. capita

SINGULAR

Nom poema

Gen. poemat is

Dat. poemat i

Acc. poema

Abl. poemat e

Voc. poema

PLURAL

Nom poemat a

Gen. poematum

Dat. poematum

Acc. poemat a

Abl. poematum

Voc. poemat a

Greek neuters with nominative singular in - a (as poema) frequently end in - is in the dative and ablative plural, and rarely in - orum in the genitive plural; as, poematis (for poematibus), poematorum (for poematum).

A number of monosyllabic nouns with mute stems want the genitive plural (like cor). See Sect: 103. g. 2.

.Liquid and Nasal Stems (l, n, r)

Exceptions are the following:

1. Stems in on- drop n in the nominative: as in legio, stem legion-.

2. Stems in din- and gin- drop n and keep an original o in the nominative: as in virgo, stem virgin-.

3. Stems in in- (not din- or gin-) retain n and have e instead of i in the nominative: as in cornicen, stem cornicin-.

4. Stems in tr- have -ter in the nominative: as, pater, stem patr-.

consul, M., consul leo, M., lion virgo, F., maiden pater, M., father

SINGULAR

Nom consul

Gen. consul is

Dat. consul i

Acc. consul em

Abl. consul e

Voc. consul

PLURAL

Nom consul es

Gen. consulum

Dat. consulibus

Acc. consul es

Abl. consulibus

Voc. consul es

SINGULAR

Nom leo

Gen. leonis

Dat. leoni

Acc. leonem

Abl. leone

Voc. leo

PLURAL

Nom leon es

Gen. leonum

Dat. leonibus

Acc. leones

Abl. leonibus

Voc. leon es

SINGULAR

Nom virgo

Gen. virginis

Dat. virgini

Acc. virginem

Abl. virgine

Voc. virgo

PLURAL

Nom virgines

Gen. virginum

Dat. virginibus

Acc. virgines

Abl. virginibus

Voc. virgines

SINGULAR

Nom pater

Gen. patris

Dat. patri

Acc. patrem

Abl. patre

Voc. pater

PLURAL

Nom patres

Gen. patrum

Dat. patribus

Acc. patres

Abl. patribus

Voc. patres

NOTE 1.--Stems in ll-, rr- (N.) lose one of their liquids in the nominative: as, far, farris; mel, mellis.

NOTE 2.--A few masculine and feminine stems have a nominative in -s as well as in -r: as, honos or honor, arbos or arbor.

NOTE 3.-- Canis, dog, and iuvenis, youth, have - is in the nominative.

Exceptions: 1. Stems in in- have e instead of i in the nominative: as in nomen, stem nomin-.

2. Most stems in er- and or- have -us in the nominative: as, genus, stem gener-.

nomen, N., name genus, N., race corpus, N., body aequor, N., sea

SINGULAR

Nom nomen

Gen. nomin is

Dat. nomin i

Acc. nomen

Abl. nomin e

Voc. nomen

PLURAL

Nom nomin a

Gen. nominum

Dat. nominibus

Acc. nomin a

Abl. nominibus

Voc. nomin a

SINGULAR

Nom genus

Gen. generis

Dat. generi

Acc. genus

Abl. genere

Voc. genus

PLURAL

Nom genera

Gen. generum

Dat. generibus

Acc. genera

Abl. generibus

Voc. gener a

SINGULAR

Nom corpus

Gen. corporis

Dat. corpori

Acc. corpus

Abl. corpore

Voc. corpus

PLURAL

Nom corpora

Gen. corporum

Dat. corporibus

Acc. corpore

Abl. corporibus

Voc. corpora

SINGULAR

Nom aequor

Gen. aequoris

Dat. aequori

Acc. aequor

Abl. aequore

Voc. aequor

PLURAL

Nom aequor a

Gen. aequorum

Dat. aequoribus

Acc. aequora

Abl. aequoribus

Voc. aequora

So also are declined opus, - eris, work; pignus, - eris or - oris, pledge, etc.

NOTE.--The following real or apparent liquid and nasal stems have the genitive plural in -ium, and are to be classed with the i-stems: imber, linter, uter, venter; glis, mas, mus, [ ren]; also vires (plural of vis: see Sect: 79).

The i-STEMS

1. Pure i-Stems:

Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic nouns in - is and four in -er.

Neuters in - e, -al, and -ar.

2. Mixed i-Stems, declined in the singular like consonant stems, the plural like i-stems.

1 These differences depend in part upon special phonetic laws, in accordance with which vowels in weakly accented or unaccented syllables are variously modified, and in part upon the influence of analogy.

2 These differences depend in part upon special phonetic laws, in accordance with which vowels in weakly accented or unaccented syllables are variously modified, and in part upon the influence of analogy.

3 These, no doubt, had originally ter- in the stem, but this had become weakened to tr- in some of the cases even in the parent speech. In Latin only the nominative and vocative singular show the e. But cf. Maspitris and Maspiteris (Ma[r]s-piter), quoted by Priscian as old forms.

4 These were originally s-stems (cf. Sect: 15. 4).

5 I.e. having the same number of syllables in the nominative and genitive singular.

.Pure I-Stems --Pure

Four stems in bri- and tri- do not add s to form the nominative, but drop i and insert e before r. These are imber, linter, uter, venter.

sitis, F., thirst turris, F., tower ignis, M., fire imber, M., rain

SINGULAR

Nom sitis

Gen. sitis

Dat. siti

Acc. sitim

Abl. siti

Voc. sitis

SINGULAR

Nom turris

Gen. turris

Dat. turri

Acc. turrim (-em)

Abl. turri

Voc. turris

PLURAL

Nom turres

Gen. turrium

Dat. turribus

Acc. turres

Abl. turribus

Voc. turres

SINGULAR

Nom ignis

Gen. ignis

Dat. igni

Acc. ignem

Abl. igne

Voc. ignis

PLURAL

Nom ignes

Gen. ignium

Dat. ignibus

Acc. ignes

Abl. ignibus

Voc. ignes

SINGULAR

Nom imber

Gen. imbris

Dat. imbri

Acc. imbrem

Abl. imbre

Voc. imber

PLURAL

Nom imbres<

Gen. imbrium<

Dat. imbribus

Acc. imbres<

Abl. imbribus

Voc. imbres<

Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar have - i in the ablative singular, -ium in the genitive plural, and -ia in the nominative and accusative plural: as, animal, animali, -ia, -ium.

SINGULAR

Nom sedile

Gen. sedilis

Dat. sedili

Acc. sedile

Abl. sedile

Voc. sedile

PLURAL

Nom sedilia

Gen. sedilium

Dat. sedilibus

Acc. sedilia

Abl. sedilibus

Voc. sedilia

SINGULAR

Nom animal

Gen. animalis

Dat. animali

Acc. animal

Abl. animali

Voc. animal

PLURAL

Nom animalia

Gen. animalium

Dat. animalibus

Acc. animalia

Abl. animalibus

Voc. animalia

SINGULAR

Nom calcar

Gen. calcaris

Dat. calcari

Acc. calcar

Abl. calcari

Voc. calcar

PLURAL

Nom calcaria

Gen. calcarium

Dat. calcaribus

Acc. calcaria

Abl. calcaribus

Voc. calcaria

1 Such are animal, bacchanal, bidental, capital, cervical, cubital, lupercal, minutal, puteal, quadrantal, toral, tribunal, vectigal; calcar, cochlear, exemplar, lacunar, laquear, tucar, luminar, lupanar, palear, pulvinar, torcular. Cf. the plurals dentalia, frontalia, genualia, sponsalia; altaria, plantaria, specularia, talaria; also many names of festivals, as, Saturnalia.

2 Exceptions are augurale, collare, focale, navale, penetrale, ramale, scutale, tibiale; alveare, capillare. cochleare.

.Mixed i-Stems

NOTE.--It is sometimes impossible to distinguish between these two classes.

1. Nouns in - es, gen. - is.

2. Monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a consonant: as, ars, pons, arx.

3. Polysyllables in -ns or -rs: as, cliens, cohors.

4. Nouns in -tas, genitive - tatis (genitive plural usually -um): as, civitas.

5. Penat es, optimates, and nouns denoting birth or abode (patrials) in -as, - is, plural -ates, - ites: as, Arpinas, plural Arpinates; Quiris, plural Quirites.

6. The following monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a vowel: dos, fraus, glis, lis, mas, mus, nix, nox, strix, vis.

nubes, F., cloud urbs, F., city nox, F., night cliens, M., client aetas, F., age

SINGULAR

Nom nubes

Gen. nubis

Dat. nubi

Acc. nubem

Abl. nube

Voc. nubes

PLURAL

Nom nubes

Gen. nubium

Dat. nubibus

Acc. nubes

Abl. nubibus

Voc. nubes

SINGULAR

Nom urbs

Gen. urbis

Dat. urbi

Acc. urbem

Abl. urbe

Voc. urbs

PLURAL

Nom urbes

Gen. urbium

Dat. urbibus

Acc. urbes

Abl. urbibus

Voc. urbium

SINGULAR

Nom nox

Gen. noctis

Dat. nocti

Acc. noctem

Abl. nocte

Voc. nox

PLURAL

Nom noctes

Gen. noctium

Dat. noctibus

Acc. noctes

Abl. noctibus

Voc. noctes

SINGULAR

Nom cliens

Gen. clientis

Dat. clienti

Acc. clientem

Abl. clientem

Voc. cliens

PLURAL

Nom clientes

Gen. clientium

Dat. clientibus

Acc. clientes

Abl. clientibus

Voc. clientes

SINGULAR

Nom aetas

Gen. aetatis

Dat. aetati

Acc. aetatem

Abl. aetate

Voc. aetas

PLURAL

Nom aetates

Gen. aetatum

Dat. aetatibus

Acc. aetates

Abl. aetatibus

Voc. aetates

1 There is much variety in the practice of the ancients, some of these words having -ium, some -um, and some both.

2 These are acinaces, aedes, alces, caedes, cautes, clades, compages, contages, fames, feles, fides (plural), indoles, labes, lues, meles, moles, nubes, palumbes, proles,propages, pubes, sedes, saepes, sordes, strages, strues, suboles, tabes, torques, tudes, vates, vehes, vepres, verres, vulpes; aedes has also nominative aedis.

3 There is much variety in the practice of the ancients, some of these words having -ium, some -um, and some both.

4 Rarely clientum.

5 Also aetatium. Cf.Sect: 71. 4.

Summary of i-Stems

They have the genitive plural in -ium (but some monosyllables lack it entirely). For a few exceptions, see Sect: 78.

All neuters have the nominative and accusative plural in -ia.

The accusative plural (M. or F.) is regularly - is.

The accusative singular (M. or F.) of a few ends in -im (Sect: 75).

The ablative singular of all neuters, and of many masculines and feminines, ends in - i (see Sect: 76).

The accusative in -im is found exclusively:

1. In Greek nouns and in names of rivers.

2. In buris, cucumis, ravis, sitis, tussis, vis.

3. In adverbs in -tim (being accusative of nouns in -tis), as, partim; and in amussim.

The accusative in -im is found sometimes in febris, puppis, restis, turris, securis, sementis, and rarely in many other words.

The ablative in - i is found exclusively:

1. In nouns having the accusative in -im (Sect: 75); also securis.

2. In the following adjectives used as nouns: aequalis, annalis, aqualis, consularis, gentilis, molaris, primipilaris, tribulis.

3. In neuters in - e, -al, -ar: except baccar, iubar, rete, and sometimes mare.

The ablative in - i is found sometimes:

1. In avis, clavis, febris, finis, ignis,imber, lux, navis, ovis, pelvis, puppis, sementis, strigilis, turris, and occasionally in other words.

2. In the following adjectives used as nouns: affinis, bipennis, canalis, familiaris, natalis, rivalis, sapiens, tridens, triremis, vocalis.

NOTE 1.--The ablative of fames is always fam e (Sect: 105. e). The defective mane has sometimes mani (Sect: 103. b. N.) as ablative.

NOTE 2.--Most names of towns in - e (as, Praeneste, Tergeste) and Soracte, a mountain, have the ablative in - e. Caere has Caerete.

NOTE 3.--Canis and iuvenis have cane, iuvene

1. Always,-- canis, iuvenis,ambages, mare (once only, otherwise wanting), volucris; regularly, sedes, vates.

2. Sometimes,-- apis, caedes, clades, mensis, strues, suboles.

3. Very rarely,--patrials in -as, -atis; - is, - itis; as, Arpinas, Arpinatum, Samnis, Samnitum.

.Irregular Nouns of the Third Declension

(Editor: In the original format these are in a table, here you can find the same forms in plain text format.)

bos, C.--- senex, M. ---caro, F. ---os, N. ---vis, F.

SINGULAR

NOM. bos ----senex ----caro ----os ----vis

GEN. bov is ----sen is---- carn is ----oss is ----vis (rare)

DAT. bov i ----sen i ----carn i ----oss i---- vi (rare)

ACC. bov em ----sen em ----carn em ----os ----vim

ABL. bov e ----sen e---- carn e---- oss e---- vi

PLURAL

NOM. bov es---- sen es---- carn es ----oss a ----vir es

GEN. boum ----senum ----carnium ----ossium ----virium

DAT. bobus---- senibus---- carnibus---- ossibus---- viribus

ACC. bov es ----sen es---- carn es ----oss a ----vir is (- es

ABL. bobus---- senibus ----carnibus---- ossibus ----viribus

SINGULAR

NOM. sus------Iuppiter------nix------iter

GEN. su is ------Iov is ------niv is ------itiner is

DAT. su i------ Iov i------ niv i ------itiner i

ACC. su em ------Iov em ------niv em ------iter

ABL. su e------ Iov e ------niv e------ itiner e

PLURAL

NOM. su es ------niv es ------itiner a

GEN. suum ------nivium ------itinerum

DAT. suibus ------ nivibus ------itineribus

ACC. sues------ niv es------ itiner a

ABL. suibus ------ nivibus ------itineribus

Two vowel-stems in u-, gru- and su-, which follow the third declension, add s in the nominative, and are inflected like mute stems: grus has also a nominative gruis; sus has both suibus and suč÷bus in the dative and ablative plural, grus has only gruibus.

In the stem bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes o in the nominative (bos, bovis).

In nav- (nau-) an i is added (navis, - is), and it is declined like turris (Sect: 67).

In Iov- (= Zeus) the diphthong (ou) becomes u in Iu-piter (for -pea ter), genitive I ovis, etc.; but the form Iuppiter is preferred.

In iter, itineris (N.), iecur, iecinoris (iecoris) (N.), supellex, supellectilis (F.), the nominative has been formed from a shorter stem; in senex, senis, from a longer; so that these words show a combination of forms from two distinct stems.

In nix, nivis the nominative retains a g from the original stem, the g uniting with s, the nominative ending, to form x. In the other cases the stem assumes the form niv- and it adds i in the genitive plural.

Vas (N.), vasis, keeps s throughout; plural vasa, vasorum. A dative plural vasibus also occurs. There is a rare singular vasum.

.The Locative Case

Greek Nouns of the Third Declension

1. Genitive singular in - os, as, tigridos.

2. Accusative singular in - a, as, aethera.

3. Vocative singular like the stem, as, Pericle, Orpheu, Atla.

4. Nominative plural in -es, as, heroe „s.

5. Accusative plural in -es, as: heroes.

heros, M., hero lampas, F., torch basis, F., base tigris, C., tiger nais, F., naiad

SINGULAR

NOM. heros -----lampas ----- bas is -----tigr is -----nais

GEN. hero is -----lampad os ----- bas eos -----tigr is(-id os) -----naid os

DAT. hero i -----lampad i -----bas i -----tigr i ----- naid i

ACC. hero a -----lampad a ----- bas in -----tigr in(-id a) -----naid a

ABL. hero e -----lampad e vbas i -----tigr i(-id e) -----naid e

PLURAL

NOM. -----heroes -----lampades -----bas es -----tigr es ----- naides

GEN. heroum -----lampadum -----basium(- eon) -----tigrium -----naidum

D.A.heroibus -----lampadibus -----basibus -----tigribus -----naidibus

ACC. heroea s -----lampadea s ----- bas is((-- eis) -----tigr is(-ide a s) -----naide a s

PROPER NAMES

NOM. Dido ------Simois ------Capys

GEN. Didonis(Dedus) ------Simoentis ------ Capy os

DAT. Didoni(Dido) ------ Simoenti ------Capy i

ACC. Didon em(-o) ------ Simoenta ------Capyn

ABL. Didon e(-o) ------Simoente ------Capye

VOC. Dido ------Simois ------Capy

NOM. Orpheus ------Pericles------ Paris

GEN. Orphe i(-e os)------ Pericl is(- i) ------Paridis

DAT. Orphe i(-e o)------ Pericl i(- i)------ Parid i

ACC. Orphe a(-um) ------Periclem(- ea, - en) ------Parid em, Parim(-in)

ABL. Orphe o ------Pericl e ------Parid e, Par i

VOC. Orpheu ------Pericles(- e) ------Pari

NOTE.--The regular Latin forms may be used for most of the above.

Delphinus, - i (M.), has also the form delphi n, - inis; Salamis, - is (F.) has acc. Salamina.

Most stems in id- (nom. - is) often have also the forms of i-stems: as tigris, gen. -i dis (-i dos) or - is; acc. -i dem (-i da) or -im (- in); abl. -i de or - i. But many, including most feminine proper names, have acc. - idem (-ida); abl. -ide,--not -im or - i. (These stems are irregular also in Greek.)

Stems in on- sometimes retain -n in the nominative: as, Agamemnon (or Agamemno), genitive -o nis, accusative -o na.

Stems in ont- form the nominative in -on: as, horizon, Xenophon; but a few are occasionally Latinized into on- (nom. - o): as, Draco, -onis; Antipho, -onis.

Like Simo is are declined stems in ant-, ent-, and a few in unt- (nominative in -as, - is, -us): as, Atla s, - antis; Trapezus, -untis.

Some words fluctuate between different declensions: as Orpheus between the second and the third.

-on is found in the genitive plural in a few Greek titles of books: as, Metamorphoseon, of the Metamorphoses (Ovid's well-known poem); Georgicon, of the Georgics (a poem of Virgil).

Gender in the Third Declension

Exceptions are the following:

Feminine are arbor; c os, dos; linter.

Neuter are ador, aequor, cor, marmor; os ( oris); also os ( ossis);

cadaver, iter, tuber, uber, ver; and names of plants and trees in -er: as, acer, papaver.

Exceptions are the following:

Masculine are leo, leonis; ligo,-onis; sermo, -onis; also cardo, harpago margo, ordo, turbo; and concrete nouns in -io: as, pugio, unio, papilio;

acinaces, aries, celes, lebes, paries, pes;

Nouns in - nis and -guis: as, ignis, sanguis; also axis, caulis, collis, cucumis, ensis, fascis, follis, fustis, lapis, mensis, orbis, piscis, postis, pulvis, vomis;

mus;

calix, fornix, grex, phoenix, and nouns in - ex (gen. -icis) (Sect: 85);

dens, fons, mons, pons.

NOTE.--Some nouns in - is and -ns which are masculine were originally adjectives or participles agreeing with a masculine noun: as, Aprilis (sc. mensis), M., April; oriens (sc. sol), M., the east; annalis (sc. liber), M., the year-book.

Neuter are vas ( vasis); crus, ius, pus, rus, tus.

Exceptions are the following:

Masculine are sal, sol, pecten, vultur, lepus.

Feminine is pecus (gen. - udis).

.FOURTH DECLENSION

SINGULAR

Nom manus

Gen. manus

Dat. manui(-u)

Acc. manum

Abl. manu

Voc. manus

PLURAL

Nom manus

Gen. man uum

Dat. man uum

Acc. manus

Abl. manuum

Voc. manus

SINGULAR

Nom lacus

Gen. lacus

Dat. lacui(-u)

Acc. lacum

Abl. lacu

Voc.

PLURAL

Nom lacus

Gen. lacuum

Dat. lacubus -ibus

Acc. lacus

Abl. lacubus -ibus

Voc. lacus

SINGULAR

Nom genus

Gen. genus

Dat. genu

Acc. genus

Abl. genu

Voc.

PLURAL

Nom genua

Gen. genuum

Dat. genibus

Acc. genua

Abl. genibus

Voc. genua

1 An old, though not the original ending (see p. 32. footnote 2).

2 Always in the formula aqua et igni interdici (Sect: 401).

3 The Indo-European ending of the nominative plural, -es (preserved in Greek in consonant stems, as ortux, ortug- es), contracts with a stem-vowel and gives - es in the Latin i-declension (cf, the Greek plural oeis). This - es was extended to consonant stems in Latin.

4 Canis and iuvenis are really n-stems

5 Also Iupiter.

6 The Indo-European locative singular ended in -i, which became -e in Latin. Thus the Latin ablative in - e is, historically considered, a locative. The Latin ablative in - i (from -id) was an analogical formation (cf. - a from - ad, - o from -od), properly belonging to i-stems. With names of towns and a few other words, a locative function was ascribed to forms in - i (as, Carthagini), partly on the analogy of the real locative of o-stems (as, Corinthi, Sect: 49. a); but forms in -e also survived in this use. The plural -bus is properly dative or ablative, but in forms like Trallibus it has a locative function. Cf. Philippis (Sect: 49. a), in which the ending - is is, historically considered, either locative, or instrumental, or both, and Athenis (Sect: 43. c), in which the ending is formed on the analogy of o-stems.

7 Dative, heroisin (once only).

8 Some nouns of doubtful or variable gender are omitted.

9 Many nouns in - o (gen. -onis) are masculinby signification: as, gero, carrier restio, ropemaker: and family names (originally nicknames): as, Cicero, Naso. See Sect: 236. c, 255.

Exceptions: The following are Feminine: acus, anus, colus, domus, idus (plural), manus, nurus, porticus, quinquatrus (plural), socrus, tribus, with a few names of plants and trees. Also, rarely, penus, specus.

1 A few other neuters of this declension are mentioned by the ancient grammarians as occurring in certain cases.

A genitive singular in - i (as of the second declension) sometimes occurs in nouns in -tus: as, senatus, genitive senati (regularly senatus).

In the genitive plural - uum is sometimes pronounced as one syllable, and may then be written -um: as, currum (Aen. 6.653) for curruum.

The dative and ablative plural in -ubus are retained in partus and tribus; so regularly in artus and lacus, and occasionally in other words; portus and specus have both -ubus and -ibus.

Most names of plants and trees, and colus, distaff, have also forms of the second declension: as, ficus, fig, genitive ficus or fici.

An old genitive singular in - uis or - uos and an old genitive plural in -uom occur rarely: as, senatuis, senatuos; fluctuom.

The ablative singular ended anciently in -ud (cf. Sect: 43. N. 1): as, magistratud.

SINGULAR

Nom domus

Gen. domus (dom i, loc.)

Dat. domui (dom o)

Acc. domum

Abl. domo -u

Voc. dome

PLURAL

Nom domus domi

Gen. domuum (dom orum)

Dat. domibus

Acc. domus domos

Abl. domibus

Voc. --

NOTE 1.--The Locative is domi (rarely domui), at home.

NOTE 2.--The Genitive domi occurs in Plautus; domorum is late or poetic.

cantus, song, CAN, cano, sing; casus (for *cad-tus), chance, CAD, cado, fall, exsulatus, exile, from exsulo, to be an exile (exsul).

Many are formed either from verb-stems not in use, or by analogy:

consulatus (as if from *consulo, - are), senatus, incestus.

The accusative and the dative or ablative of nouns in -tus (- sus) form the Supines of verbs (Sect: 159. b): as, spectatum, petitum; dictu, visu.

Of many verbal derivatives only the ablative is used as a noun: as, iussu ( meo), by (my) command; so iniussu ( populi), without (the people's) order. Of some only the dative is used: as, divisui.

.FIFTH DECLENSION (e-STEMS)

res, F., thing dies, M., day fides, F., faith

SINGULAR

Nom res

Gen. rei

Dat. rei

Acc. rem

Abl. re

Voc. res

PLURAL

Nom res

Gen. rerum

Dat. rebus

Acc. re

Abl. rebus

Voc. res

SINGULAR

Nom dies

Gen. diei

Dat. diei

Acc. diei

Abl. die

Voc. dies

PLURAL

Nom dies

Gen. dierum

Dat. diebus

Acc. dies

Abl. diebus

Voc. dies

SINGULAR

Nom fides

Gen. fidei

Dat. fidei

Acc. fidem

Abl. fide

Voc. fides

PLURAL ?

Nom fides

Gen. fiderum<

Dat. fidibus

Acc. fides

Abl. fidibus

Voc. fides

NOTE.--The e of the stem is shortened in the genitive and dative singular of fides, spes, res, but in these it is found long in early Latin. In the accusative singular e is always short.

Gender in the Fifth Declension

Dies is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indicating a fixed time, and regularly feminine when used of time in general: as, constituta die, on a set day; longa dies, a long time.

Case-Forms in the Fifth Declension

Of nouns of the fifth declension, only dies and res are declined throughout. Most want the plural, which is, however, found in the nominative or accusative in acies, effigies, e luvies, facies, glacies, series, species, spes.

The Locative form of this declension ends in - e. It is found only in certain adverbs and expressions of time:

hodie, to-day; die quarto (old, quarti), the fourth day;

perendie, day after to-morrow; pridie, the day before.

The fifth declension is closely related to the first, and several nouns have forms of both: as, materia, -ies; saevitia, -ies. The genitive and dative in - ei are rarely found in these words.

Some nouns vary between the fifth and the third declension: as, requies, saties (also satias, genitive -atis), plebes (also plebs, genitive plebis), fames, genitive famis, ablative fame.

NOTE.--In the genitive and dative - ei (-ei) was sometimes contracted into -ei: as, tribunus pleb ei, tribune of the people ( plebes). Genitives in - i and - e also occur: as, dii (Aen. 1.636) , plebi-scitum, acie (B. G. 2.23) . A few examples of the old genitive in - es are found (cf. -as in the first declension, Sect: 43. b). The dative has rarely -e, and a form in - i is cited.

1 The forms facierum, specierum, speciebus, sperum, spebus, are cited by grammarians, also speres, speribus, and some of these occur in late authors.

.DEFECTIVE NOUNS

Nouns wanting in the Plural

1. Most proper names: as, Caesar, Caesar; Gallia, Gaul.

2. Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass: as, aurum, gold; aer, air; triticum, wheat.

3. Abstract nouns: as, ambitio, ambition; fortitudo, courage; calor, heat.

The plural of a proper name may be applied to two or more persons or places, or even things, and so become strictly common:

duodecim Caesares, the twelve Caesars.

Galliae, the two Gauls (Cis- and Transalpine).

Castores, Castor and Pollux; Ioves, images of Jupiter.

The plural of names of things reckoned in mass may denote particular objects: as, aera, bronze utensils, nives, snowflakes; or different kinds of a thing: as, aeres, airs (good and bad).

The plural of abstract nouns denotes occasions or instances of the quality, or the like:

quaedam excellentiae, some cases of superiority; otia, periods of rest; calores, frigora, times of heat and cold.

Nouns wanting in the Singular

1. Many names of towns: as, Athenae ( Athens), Thurii, Philippi, Veiii.

2. Names of festivals and games: as, Olympia, the Olympic Games; Bacchanalia, feast of Bacchus; Quinquatrus, festival of Minerva; ludi Romani, the Roman Games.

3. Names of classes: as, optimates, the upper classes; maiores, ancestors; liberi, children; penates, household gods; Quirites, citizens (of Rome).

4. Words plural by signification: as, arma, weapons; artus, joints; divitiae, riches; scalae, stairs; valvae, folding-doors; fores, double-doors; angustiae, a narrow pass (narrows); moenia, city walls.

NOTE 1.--Some words, plural by signification in Latin, are translated by English nouns in the singular number: as, deliciae, delight, darling; fauces, throat; fides, lyre (also singular in poetry); insidiae, ambush; cervices, neck; viscera, flesh.

NOTE 2.--The poets often use the plural number for the singular, sometimes for metrical reasons, sometimes from a mere fashion: as, ora (for os), the face; sceptra (for sceptrum), sceptre; silentia (for silentium), silence.

1. As noun, to denote a single object: as, Bacchanal, a spot sacred to Bacchus; optimas, an aristocrat.

2. As adjective: as, Cato Maior, Cato the Elder.

3. In a sense rare, or found only in early Latin: as, scala, a ladder, valva, a door; artus, a joint.

Nouns Defective in Certain Cases

Indeclinable nouns, used only as nominative and accusative singular: fas, nefas, instar, nihil, opus (need), secus.

NOTE 1.--The indeclinable adjective necesse is used as a nominative or accusative.

NOTE 2.--The genitive nihili and the ablative nihilo (from nihilum, nothing) occur.

Nouns found in one case only (monoptotes):

1. In the nominative singular: glos (F.).

2. In the genitive singular: dicis, nauci (N.).

3. In the dative singular: divisui (M.) (cf. Sect: 94. c).

4. In the accusative singular: amussim (M.); venum (dative veno in Tacitus).

5. In the ablative singular: pondo (N.); mane (N.); astu (M.), by craft; iussu, iniussu, natu, and many other verbal nouns in -us (M.) (Sect: 94. c).

NOTE.--Mane is also used as an indeclinable accusative, and an old form mani is used as ablative. Pondo with a numeral is often apparently equivalent to pounds. A nominative singular astus and a plural astus occur rarely in later writers.

6. In the accusative plural: infitias.

Nouns found in two cases only (diptotes):

1. In the nominative and ablative singular: fors, forte (F.).

2. In the genitive and ablative singular: spontis (rare), sponte (F.).

3. In the accusative singular and plural: dicam, dicas (F.).

4. In the accusative and ablative plural: foras, foris (F.) (cf. fores), used as adverbs.

Nouns found in three cases only (triptotes):

1. In the nominative, accusative, and ablative singular: impetus, -um, -u (M.); lues, - em, - e (F.).

2. In the nominative, accusative, and dative or ablative plural: grates, -ibus (F).

3. In the nominative, genitive, and dative or ablative plural: iugera, -um, -ibus (N.); but iugerum, etc., in the singular (cf. Sect: 105. b).

Nouns found in four cases only (tetraptotes):

In the genitive, dative, accusative, ablative singular: dicionis, - i, - em, - e (F.).

Nouns declined regularly in the plural, but defective in the singular:

1. Nouns found in the singular, in genitive, dative, accusative, ablative: frugis, - i, - em, - e (F.); opis, - i (once only), - em, - e (F.; nominative Ops as a divinity).

2. Nouns found in the dative, accusative, ablative: preci, - em, - e (F.).

3. Nouns found in the accusative and ablative: cassem, - e (F.); sordem, - e (F.).

4. Nouns found in the ablative only: ambage (F.); fauce (F.); obice (C.).

Nouns regular in the singular, defective in the plural:

1. The following neuters have in the plural the nominative and accusative only: fel ( fella), far ( farra), hordeum ( hordea), ius, broth ( iura), mel ( mella), murmur ( murmura), pus ( pura), rus ( rura), tus or thus (tura).

NOTE.--The neuter ius, right, has only iura in classical writers, but a very rare genitive plural iurum occurs in old Latin.

2. calx, cor, cos, crux, fax, faex, lanx, lux, nex, os ( oris),os ( ossis),pax, pix, ros, sal, sol, vas ( vadis), want the genitive plural.

3. Most nouns of the fifth declension want the whole or part of the plural (see Sect: 98. a).

Nouns defective in both singular and plural:

1. Noun found in the genitive, accusative, ablative singular; nominative, accusative, dative, ablative plural: vicis, - em, - e; - es, -ibus.

2. Noun found in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular; genitive plural wanting: dapis, - i, - em, - e; - es, -ibus.

1 Some early or late forms and other rarities are omitted.

2 The dative singular impetui and the ablative plural impetibus occur once each.

3 The ablative plural oribus is rare, the classical idiombeing in ore omnium, in everybody's mouth, etc., not in oribus omnium.

4 The genitive plural ossium is late; ossuum (from ossua, plural of a neuter u-stem) is early and late.

5 An old nominative daps is cited.

.VARIABLE NOUNS

Colus (F.), distaff; domus (F.), house (see Sect: 93), and many names of plants in -us, vary between the Second and Fourth Declensions.

Some nouns vary between the Second and Third: as, iugerum, - i, - o, ablative - o or - e, plural - a, -um, -ibus; Mulciber, genitive -beri and - beris; sequester, genitive -tri and - tris; vas, vasis, and (old) vasum, - i (Sect: 79. e).

Some vary between the Second, Third, and Fourth: as, penus, penum, genitive peni and penoris, ablative penu.

Many nouns vary between the First and Fifth (see Sect: 98. c).

Some vary between the Third and Fifth. Thus,-- requies has genitive - etis, dative wanting, accusative -etem or - em, ablative - e (once - ete); fames, regularly of the third declension, has ablative fame (Sect: 76. N. 1), and pubes (M.) has once dative pube (in Plautus).

Pecus varies between the Third and Fourth, having pecoris, etc., but also nominative pecu, ablative pecu; plural pecua, genitive pecuum.

Many vary between different stems of the same declension: as, femur (N.), genitive - oris, also - inis (as from *femen); iecur (N.), genitive iecinoris, iocinoris, iecoris; munus (N.), plural munera and munia.

The following have a masculine form in -us and a neuter in -um: balteus, caseus, clipeus, collum, cingulum, pileus, tergum, vallum, with many others of rare occurrence.

The following have in the Plural a different gender from that of the Singular:

balneum (N.), bath; balneae (F.), baths (an establishment).

caelum (N.), heaven; caelos (M. acc., Lucr.).

carbasus (F.), a sail; carbasa (N.) (- orum), sails.

delicium (N.), pleasure; deliciae (F.), pet.

epulum (N.), feast; epulae (F.), feast.

frenum (N.), a bit; freni (M.) or frena (N.), a bridle.

iocus (M.), a jest; ioca (N.), ioci (M.), jests.

locus (M.), place; loca (N.), loci (M., usually topics, passages in books).

rastrum (N.), a rake; rastri (M.), rastra (N.), rakes.

NOTE.--Some of these nouns are heteroclites as well as heterogeneous.

aedes, - is (F.), temple--- aedes, -ium, house.

aqua (F.), water--- aquae, mineral springs, a watering-place.

auxilium (N.), help--- auxilia, auxiliaries.

bonum (N.), a good--- bona, goods, property.

carcer (M.), dungeon--- carceres, barriers (of race-course).

castrum (N.), fort--- castra, camp.

comitium (N.), place of assembly--- comitia, an election (town-meeting).

copia (F.), plenty--- copiae, stores, troops.

fides (F.), harp-string--- fides, lyre.

finis (M.), end--- fines, bounds, territories.

fortuna (F.), fortune--- fortunae, possessions.

gratia (F.), favor (rarely, thanks)--- gratiae, thanks (also, the Graces).

hortus (M.), a gardon--- horti, pleasure-grounds.

impedimentum (N.) hindrance--- impedimenta, baggage.

littera (F.), letter (of alphabet)--- litterae, epistle, literature.

locus (M.), place [plural loca (N.)]--- loci,topics, places in books.

ludus (M.), sport--- ludi, public games.

mos (M.), habit, custom--- mores, character.

natalis (M.), birthday--- natales, descent, origin.

opera (F.), work--- operae, day-laborers (uhands‰Ū?).

[ ops,] opis (F.), help (Sect: 103. f. 1)--- opes, resources, wealth.

pars (F.), part--- partes, part (on the stage), party.

rostrum (N.), beak of a ship--- rostra, speaker's platform.

sal (M. or N.), salt--- sales, witticisms.

tabella (F.), tablet--- tabellae, documents, records.

1 That is, "nouns of different inflections"(eteros, another, and klin?, to inflect).

2 That is, "of different genders"( heteros, another, and genos, gender).

3 In early writers the regular plural.

.NAMES OF PERSONS

Thus in Marcus Tullius Cicero we have--

Marcus, the praenomen, like our Christian or given name;

Tullius, the nomen, properly an adjective denoting of the Tullian gens (or house) whose original head was a real or supposed Tullus;

Cicero, the cognomen, or family name, often in origin a nickname,--in this case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea.

NOTE.--When two persons of the same family are mentioned together, the cognomen is usually put in the plural: as, Publius et Servius Sullae.

A fourth or fifth name was sometimes given as a mark of honor or distinction, or to show adoption from another gens.

Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Publius Cornelius Scipio africanus Aemilianus: e Ūfricanus, from his exploits in Africa; Aemilianus, as adopted from the Aemilian gens.

NOTE.--The Romans of the classical period had no separate name for these additions, but later grammarians invented the word agnomen to express them.

Women had commonly in classical times no personal names, but were known only by the nomen of their gens.

Thus, the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia. A second daughter would have been called Tullia secunda or minor, a third daughter, Tullia tertia, and so on.

The commonest praenomens are thus abbreviated:

A. Aulus. L. Lucius. Q. Quintus.

App. (Ap.) Appius. M. Marcus. Ser. Servius.

C. (G.) Gaius ( Caius) (cf. Sect: 1. a). M'. Manius. Sex. (S.) Sextus.

Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus (Cneius). Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius.

D. Decimus. N. ( Num.) Numerius T. Titus.

K. Kaeso (Caeso). P. Publius. Ti. (Tib.) Tiberius.

NOTE 1.--In the abbreviations C. and Cn., the initial character has the value or G (Sect: 1. a).

1 In stating officially the full name of a Roman it was customary to include the praenomina of the father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, together with the name of the tribe to which the individual belonged. Thus in an inscription we find M. TVLLIVS M. F. M. N. M. PR. COR. CICERO, i.e. Marcus Tullius Marci filius Marci nepos Marci pronepos Cornelia tribu Cicero. The names of grandfather and great-grandfather as well as that of the tribe are usually omitted in literature. The name of a wife or daughter is usually accompanied by that of the husband or father in the genitive: as, Postumia Servi Sulpicii (Suet. Iul. 50) , Postumia, wife of Servius Sulpicius; Caecilia Metelli (Div. 1.104) , Caecilia, daughter of Metellus.

.ADJECTIVES

1. In accordance with their use, they distinguish gender by different forms in the same word, and agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. Thus,--

bonus puer, the good boy.

bona puella, the good girl.

bonum donum, the good gift.

2. In their inflection they are either (1) of the First and Second Declensions, or (2) of the Third Declension.

FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS (a- AND o-STEMS)

The regular type of an adjective of the First and Second Declensions is bonus, - a, -um, which is thus declined:

bonus, bona, bonum, good

MASCULINE STEM bono----FEMININE STEM bona---- NEUTER STEM bono-

SINGULAR

NOM. bonus -----------bona -----------bonum

GEN. boni ----------bonae -----------boni

DAT. bono ----------bonae -----------bono

ACC. bonum -----------bonam -----------bonum

ABL. bono ----------bona -----bono

VOC. bon e----------- bon a -----------bonum

PLURAL

NOM. boni ----------bonae ----------bona

GEN. bonorum ----------bonarum ----------bonorum

DAT. bonis ----------bonis ----------bonis

ACC. bonos ----------bonas ----------bona

ABL. bonis ----------bonis ----------bonis

NOTE.--Stems in quo- have nominative -cus (- quos), - qua, - cum (- quom), accusative - cum (- quom), - quam, - cum (- quom), to avoid quu- (see Sect: 6. b and 46. N. 2). Thus,:

NOM. propincus (-quos) propin qua propin cum (- quom)

GEN. propin qui propin quae propin qui, etc.

But most modern editions disregard this principle.

The Genitive Singular masculine of adjectives in - ius ends in - ii, and the Vocative in -ie; not in - i, as in nouns (cf. Sect: 49. b, c); as, Lacedaemonius, - ii, -ie.

NOTE.--The possessive meus, my, has the vocative masculine mi (cf. Sect: 145).

miser, misera, miserum, wretched

MASCULINE STEM misero- FEMININE STEM misera- NEUTER STEM misero-

SINGULAR

NOM. miser--------- -- miser a -----------miserum

GEN. miseri -----------miserae -----------miseri

DAT. misero -----------miserae -----------misero

ACC. miserum -----------miseram -----------miserum

ABL. misero -----------misera -----------misero

PLURAL

NOM. miseri -----------miserae -----------misera

GEN. miserorum --------miserarum --------miserorum

DAT. miseris ----------miseris ----------miseris

ACC. miseros ----------miseras -----------misera

ABL. miser is ----------miser is ----------miser is

Like miser are declined asper, gibber, lacer, liber, prosper (also pros perus), satur (-ura, -urum), tener, with compounds of - fer and -ger: as, saetiger, - era, - erum, bristle-bearing; also, usually, dexter. In these the e belongs to the stem; but in dextra it is often omitted: as, dextra manus, the right hand.

NOTE.--Stems in ero- (as procerus), with morigerus, prope „rus, have the regular nominative masculine in -us.

The following lack a nominative singular masculine in classic use: cetera, infera, postera, supera. They are rarely found in the singular except in certain phrases: as, postero die, the next day.

NOTE.--An ablative feminine in - o is found in a few Greek adjectives: as, lectica; octophoro (Verr. 5.27) .

niger, nigra, nigrum, black

MASCULINE STEM nigro- FEMININE STEM nigra- NEUTER STEM nigro-

-----------SINGULAR

NOM. niger -----------nigra -----------nigrum

GEN. nigri -----------nigrae -----------nigri

DAT. nigro -----------nigrae -----------nigro

ACC. nigrum -----------nigram -----------nigrum

ABL. nigr acute; -----------nigra -----------nigro

-----------PLURAL

NOM. nigri ------------nigrae -----------nigra

GEN. nigrorum ---------nigr arum -------nigrorum

DAT. nigris -----------nigr is ----------nigris

ACC. nigros -----------nigras -----------nigra

ABL. nigris -----------nigris ----------nigris

Like niger are declined aeger, ater, creber, faber, glaber, integer, ludicer, macer, piger, pulcher, ruber, sacer, scaber, sinister, taeter, vafer; also the possessives noster, vester (Sect: 145).

alius (N. aliud), other. totus, whole. alter, -terius, the other.

nullus, no, none. ullus, any. neuter, -trius, neither.

solus, alone. unus, one. uter, -trius, which (of two).

Of these the singular is thus declined:

NOM. unus ------------una ------------unum

GEN. un ius ----------unius ----------un ius

DAT. un i------------ uni------------ un i

ACC. unum --------- -unam -------------unum

ABL. un o ------------un a ------------un o

NOM. uter --------- utr a --------- utrum

GEN. utrius -------- utrius --------- utr ius

DAT. utri --------- utri --------- utri

ACC. utrum --------- utram --------- utrum

ABL. ut o --------- utra--------- utro

NOM. alius --------- ali a --------- aliud

GEN. al ius--------- al ius --------- al ius

DAT. ali i ------- -- ali i --------- ali i

ACC. alium -------- - aliam --------- aliud

ABL. alio ------- -- alio --------- alia o

NOM. alter ------- --alter a ------- --alterum

GEN. alter ius ------- alter ius ------- -alter ius

DAT. alter i ------- --alter i ------- --alter i

ACC. alterum------- -- alteram ------- --alterum

ABL. alter o ------- --alter a ------- --alter o

The plural of these words is regular, like that of bonus (Sect: 110).

The genitive in - ius, dative in - i, and neuter in -d are pronominal in origin (cf. illius, illi, illud, and Sect: 146).

The i of the genitive ending - ius, though originally long, may be made short in verse; so often in alterius and regularly in utriusque.

Instead of alius, alterius is commonly used, or in the possessive sense the adjective alienus, belonging to another, another's.

In compounds--as alteruter--sometimes both parts are declined, sometimes only the latter. Thus, alteri utri or alterutri, to one of the two.

NOTE.--The regular genitive and dative forms (as in bonus) are sometimes found in some of these words: as, genitive and dative feminine, aliae; dative masculine, alio. Rare forms are alis and alid (for alius, aliud).

.THIRD DECLENSION ADJECTIVE (CONSONANT AND i-STEMS)

1. Adjectives of Three Terminations in the nominative singular,--one for each gender: as, acer, acris, acre.

2. Adjectives of Two Terminations,--masculine and feminine the same: as, levis (M., F.), leve (N.).

3. Adjectives of One Termination,--the same for all three genders: as, atrox.

Adjectives of two and three terminations are true i-stems and hence retain in the ablative singular - i, in the neuter plural -ia, in the genitive plural -ium, and in the accusative plural regularly - is (see Sect: 73 and 74).

Adjectives of Three and of Two Terminations

acer, acris, acre, keen, STEM acri-

SINGULAR

NOM. acer -------------acr is ----------acr e

GEN. acr is ----------acr is ------------acr is

DAT. acr i -----------acr i ---------- acr i

ACC. acr em ----------acr em -----------acr e

ABL. acr i ----------- acr i ---------- acr i

PLURAL

NOM. acr es ----------acr es -----------acria

GEN. acrium -----------acrium ------------acrium

DAT. acribus ----------acribus ----------acribus

ACC. acr is (-es) -----acr is (- es)-----acria

ABL. acribus ----------acribus ----------acribus

Like acer are declined the following stems in ri-:

DAT.

alacer, campester, celeber, equester, paluster, pedester, puter, saluber, silvester, terrester, volucer. So

ACC.also names of months in - ber: as, October (cf. Sect: 66).

ABL.

NOTE 1.--This formation is comparatively late, and hence, in the poets and in early Latin, either the masculine or the feminine form of these adjectives was sometimes used for both genders: as, coetus alacris (Enn.). In others, as faenebris, funebris, illustris, lugubris, mediocris, muliebris, there is no separate masculine form at all, and these are declined like levis (Sect: 116).

NOTE 2.-- Celer, celeris, celere, swift, has the genitive plural celerum, used only as a noun, denoting a military rank. The proper name Celer has the ablative in - e.

There will be a masculine and a Neuter form, only. But the forms of some are doubtful.

Like acer are declined the following stems in ri-:

alacer, campester, celeber, equester, paluster, pedester, puter, saluber, silvester, terrester, volucer. So also names of months in - ber: as, October (cf. Sect: 66).

NOTE 1.--This formation is comparatively late, and hence, in the poets and in early Latin, either the masculine or the feminine form of these adjectives was sometimes used for both genders: as, coetus alacris (Enn.). In others, as faenebris, funebris, illustris, lugubris, mediocris, muliebris, there is no separate masculine form at all, and these are declined like levis (Sect: 116).

NOTE 2.-- Celer, celeris, celere, swift, has the genitive plural celerum, used only as a noun, denoting a military rank. The proper name Celer has the ablative in - e.

levis, leve, light, STEM levi-

MASC./FEM ----------------------NEUTER

SINGULAR

NOM. levis ----------------leve

GEN. levis ---------------levis

DAT. levi ----------------levi

ACC. levem ---------------leve

ABL. levi ----------------levi

PLURAL

NOM. leves ---------------levia

GEN. levium ---------------levium

DAT. levibus ---------------levibus

ACC. levis (- es) ----------levia

ABL. levibus ----------------levibus

NOTE.--Adjectives of two and three terminations sometimes have an ablative in - e in poetry, rarely in prose.

Adjectives of One Termination

- i in the ablative singular (but often - e)

-ia in the nominative and accusative plural neuter

ium in the genitive plural

- is (as well as - es) in the accusative plural masculine and feminine.

In the other cases they follow the rule for Consonant stems.

These adjectives, except stems in l- or r-, form the nominative singular from the stem by adding s: as, atrox (stem atroc- + s), egens (stem egent- + s).

Here belong the present participles in -ns (stem nt-): as, amans, monens. They are declined like egens (but cf. Sect: 121).

atrox, fierce, STEM atroc- egens, needy, STEM egent-

SINGULAR

M. N. M. N.

NOM. atrox atrox ---------------egens egens

GEN. atroc is atroc is ------------egent is egent is

DAT. atroc i atroc i -------------egent i egent i

ACC. atroc em atrox ---------------egent em egens

ABL. atroc i(-e) atroc i (- e)--------egent i (-e) egent i(- )

PLURAL

NOM. atroc es atrocia ------------egent es egentia

GEN. atrocium atrocium ------------gentium egentium

DAT. atrocibus atrocibus ----------egentibus egentibus

ACC. atrocis(-es) atrocia ------------egent is(-es) egentia

ABL. atrocibus atrocibus ----------egentibus egentibus

concors, harmonious STEM concord- praeceps, headlong STEM praecipit-

............SINGULAR

M., F. N. M., F. N.

NOM. concors concors ----------praeceps praeceps

GEN. concord is concord is -------praecipit is praecipit is

DAT. concord i concord i --------praecipit i praecipit i

ACC. concord em concors ----------praecipit em praeceps

ABL. concord i concord i ---------praecipit i praecipit i

............PLURAL

NOM. concord es concordia -------praecipit es praecipitia

GEN. concordium concordium ------[ praecipitium]

DAT. concordibus concordibus -----praecipitibus praecipitibus

ACC. concord is/-es concordia -------0raecipit is/ es praecipitia

ABL. concordibus concordibus -----praecipitibus praecipitibus

iens, going STEM eunt- par, equal STEM par- dives, rich STEM divit-

SINGULAR

M., F. N. M., F. N. M., F. N.

NOM. iens iens -------------par par ------------dives dives

GEN. eunt is eunt is -------par is par is -------divit is divit is

DAT. eunt i eunt i ---------par i par i-------- divit i divit i

ACC. eunt em iens ---------par em par----------divit em dives

ABL. eunt e/-i eunt e/-i-- -par i par i --------divit e divit e

PLURAL

NOM. eunt es euntia ---------par es paria -----------divit es [ditia]

GEN. euntium euntium ---------parium parium ---------divitum d ivitum

DAT. euntibus euntibus -------paribus paribus -------divitibus divitibus

ACC. eunt is/-es euntia ------par is/-es paria ------divit is /-es [divites]

ABL. euntibus euntibus -------paribus paribus-------- divitibus divitibus

uber, fertile STEM uber- vetus, old STEM veter-

SINGULAR

NOM. uber uber -------------------vetus vetus

GEN. uber is uber is -------------veter is veter is

DAT. uber i uber i ----------------veter i veter i

ACC. uber em uber -----------------veter em vetus

ABL. uber iuber i -----------------veter e (- i) veter e (- i)

PLURAL

NOM. uber es uber a --------------veter es veter a

GEN. uberum uberum ---------------veterum veterum

DAT. uberibus uberibus -----------veteribus veteribus

ACC. uber es uber a-------------- veter es veter a

ABL. uberibus uberibus-- ---------veteribus veteribus

NOTE.--Of these vetus is originally an s-stem. In most s-stems the r has intruded self into the nominative also, as bi-corpor (for *bi-corpos), degener (for de-genes).

.Comparatives: Declension

melior, better STEM melior- for melios------ plus, more STEM plur- for plus- There is a Masc./Fem. and a separate Neuter for melius. But plus has just one form

SINGULAR

NOM. melior melius --------------plus

GEN. melior is melior is -----------plur is

DAT. melior i melior i ------------pluri

ACC. melior em melius --------------plus

ABL. melior e (- i) melior e (- i) ------plur e

PLURAL

NOM. melior es melior a plur es --------------plur a

GEN. meliorum meliorum ----------------------plurium plurum

DAT. melioribus melioribus pluribus ----------pluribus

ACC. melior es(-is) melior a plur es (- is) ------plur a

ABL. melioribus melioribus pluribus ----------pluribus

All comparatives except plus are declined like melior.

The stem of comparatives properly ended in long/short-s-; but this became or in the nominative masculine and feminine, and or- in all other cases except the nominative and accusative singular neuter, where s is retained and short -o- is changed to u (cf. honor, - oris; corpus, -oris). Thus comparatives appear to have two terminations.

The neuter sing ular plus is used only as a noun. The genitive (rarely the ablative) is used only as an expression of value (cf. Sect: 417). The dative is not found in classic use. The compound complures, several, has sometimes neuter plural compluria.

Case-Forms of Consonant Stems

The Ablative Singular commonly ends in - i, but sometimes - e.

1. Adjectives used as nouns (as superstes, survivor) have - e.

2. Participles in -ns used as such (especially in the ablative absolute, Sect: 419), or as nouns, regularly have - e; but participles used as adjectives have regularly - i:

domino imperante, at the master's command; ab amante, by a lover; ab amanti muliere, by a loving woman.

3. The following have regularly - i: amens, anceps, concors (and other compounds of cor), consors (but as a substantive, - e), degener, hebes, ingens, inops, memor (and compounds), par (in prose), perpes, praeceps, praepes, teres.

4. The following have regularly - e: caeles, compos, [*deses], dives, hospes, particeps, pauper, princeps, sospes, superstes. So also patrials (see Sect: 71. 5) and stems in at-, it-, nt-, rt-, when used as nouns, and sometimes when used as adjectives.

The Genitive Plural ends commonly in -ium, but has -um in th