Allen and Greenough's New Latin GrammarPART SECOND --- SYNTAXINTRODUCTORY NOTESECTION: #268. The study of formal grammar arose at a late period in the history of language, and dealt with language as a fully developed product. Accordingly the terms of Syntax correspond to the logical habits of thought and forms of expression that had grown up at such a period, and have a logical as well as a merely grammatical meaning. But a developed syntactical structure is not essential to the expression of thought. A form of words--like ó puerum pulchrum! oh! beautiful boy--expresses a thought and might even be called a sentence; though it does not logically declare anything, and does not, strictly speaking, make what is usually called a sentence at all. At a very early period of spoken language, word-forms were no doubt significant in themselves, without inflections, and constituted the whole of language,--just as to a child the name of some familiar object will stand for all he can say about it. At a somewhat later stage, such uninflected words put side by side made a rudimentary form of proposition: as a child might say fire bright; horse run. With this began the first form of logical distinction, that of Subject and Predicate; but as yet there was no distinction in form between noun and verb, and no fixed distinction in function. At a later stage forms were differentiated in function and--by various processes of composition which cannot be fully traced--Inflections were developed. These served to express person, tense, case, and other grammatical relations, and we have true Parts of Speech. Not until language reached this last stage was there any fixed limit to the association of words, or any rule prescribing the manner in which they should be combined. But gradually, by usage, particular forms came to be limited to special functions (as nouns, verbs, adjectives), and fixed customs arose of combining words into what we now call Sentences. These customs are in part the result of general laws or modes of thought (logic), resulting from our habits of mind (General Grammar); and in part are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a given language (Particular Grammar), and making what is called the Syntax of that language. In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost exclusively accustomed, the unit of expression is the Sentence: that is, the completed statement, with its distinct Subject and Predicate. Originally sentences were simple. But two simple sentence-forms may be used together, without the grammatical subordination of either, to express a more complex form of thought than could be denoted by one alone. This is parataxis (arrangement side by side). Since, however, the two sentences, independent in form, were in fact used to express parts of a complex whole and were therefore mutually dependent, the sense of unity found expression in conjunctions, which denoted the grammatical subordination of the one to the other. This is hypotaxis (arrangement under, subordination). In this way, through various stages of development, which correspond to our habitual modes of thought, there were produced various forms of complex sentences. Thus, to express the complex idea I beseech you to pardon me, the two simple sentence-forms quaesó and ígnóscás were used side by side, quaesó ígnóscás; then the feeling of grammatical subordination found expression in a conjunction, quaesó ut ígnóscás, forming a complex sentence. The results of these processes constitute the subject-matter of Syntax. 1 The second part generally has its usual inflection; but, as this kind of composition is in fact older than inflection, the compounded stem sometimes has an inflection of its own (as, cornicen, - cinis; lúcifer, - ferí; iúdex, - dicis), from stems not occurring in Latin. Especially do compound adjectives in Latin take the form of i-stems: as, animus, exanimis; nórma, abnórmis (see Sect: 73). In composition, stems regularly have their uninflected form: as, ígni- spicium, divining by fire. But in o- and á-stems the final vowel of the stem appears as i-, as in áli-pés (from ála, stem álá-); and i- is so common a termination of compounded stems, that it is often added to stems which do not properly have it: as, flóri-comus, flower-crowned (from flós, flór-is, and coma, hair). SECTION: #269. A Sentence is a form of words which contains a Statement, a Question, an Exclamation, or a Command. A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a Declarative Sentence: as,-- canis currit, the dog runs. A sentence in the form of a Question is called an Interrogative Sentence: as,-- canisne currit? does the dog run? A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an Exclamatory Sentence: as,-- quam celeriter currit canis! how fast the dog runs! A sentence in the form of a Command, an Exhortation, or an Entreaty is called an Imperative Sentence: as,--í, curre per Alpís, go, run across the Alps; currat canis, let the dog run. .Subject and .PredicateSECTION: #270. Every sentence consists of a Subject and a Predicate. The Subject of a sentence is the person or thing spoken of. The Predicate is that which is said of the Subject. Thus in canis currit, the dog runs, canis is the subject, and currit the predicate. SECTION: #271. The Subject of a sentence is usually a Noun or Pronoun, or some word or group of words used as a Noun:
But in Latin the subject is often implied in the termination of the verb: sedé-mus, we sit. curri-tis, you run. inqui-t, says he. SECTION: #272. The Predicate of a sentence may be a Verb (as in canis currit, the dog runs), or it may consist of some form of sum and a Noun or Adjective which describes or defines the subject (as in Caesar cónsul erat, Caesar was consul). Such a noun or adjective is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective, and the verb sum is called the Copula (i.e. the connective). Thus in the example given, Caesar is the subject, cónsul the predicate noun, and erat the copula (see Sect: 283). .Transitive and Intransitive VerbsSECTION: #273. Verbs are either Transitive or Intransitive. 1. A Transitive Verb has or requires a direct object to complete its sense (see Sect: 274): as,-- frátrem cecídit, he slew his brother. 2. An Intransitive Verb admits of no direct object to complete its sense: cadó, I fall (or am falling). sól lúcet, the sun shines (or is shining). NOTE 1.--Among transitive verbs Factitive Verbs are sometimes distinguished as a separate class. These state an act which produces the thing expressed by the word which completes their sense. Thus ménsam fécit, he made a table (which was not in existence before), is distinguished from ménsam percussit, he struck a table (which already existed). NOTE 2.--A transitive verb may often be used absolutely, i.e. without any object expressed: as,-- arat, he is ploughing, where the verb does not cease to be transitive because the object is left indefinite, as we see by adding,-- quid, what? agrum suum, his land. NOTE 3.--Transitive and Intransitive Verbs are often called Active and Neuter Verbs respectively. .ObjectSECTION: #274. The person or thing immediately affected by the action of a verb is called the Direct Object. A person or thing indirectly affected by the action of a verb is called the Indirect Object. Only transitive verbs can have a Direct Object; but an Indirect Object may be used with both transitive and intransitive verbs (Sect: 362, 366):
NOTE.--The distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs is not a fixed dis tinction, for most transitive verbs may be used intransitively, and many verbs usually intransitive may take a direct object and so become transitive (Sect: 388. a). With certain verbs, the Genitive, Dative, or Ablative is used where the English, from a difference in meaning, requires the direct object (Objective):
Many verbs transitive in Latin are rendered into English by an intransitive verb with a preposition:
SECTION: #275. When a transitive verb is changed from the Active to the Passive voice, the Direct Object becomes the Subject and is put in the Nominative case:
.ModificationSECTION: #276. A Subject or a Predicate may be modified by a single word, or by a group of words (a phrase or a clause). The modifying word or group of words may itself be modified in the same way. A single modifying word may be an adjective, an adverb, an appositive (Sect: 282), or the oblique case of a noun. Thus in the sentence vir fortis patienter fert, a brave man endures patiently, the adjective fortis, brave, modifies the subject vir, man, and the adverb patienter, patiently, modifies the predicate fert, endures. The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word to which it belongs. Thus in the sentence puerí patrem videó, I see the boy's father, the genitive puerí limits patrem (by excluding any other father). SECTION: #277. A Phrase is a group of words, without subject or predicate of its own, which may be used as an Adjective or an Adverb. Thus in the sentence vir fuit summá nóbilitáte, he was a man of the highest nobility, the words summá nóbilitáte, of the highest nobility, are used for the adjective nóbilis, noble (or nóbilissimus, very noble), and are called an Adjective Phrase. So in the sentence mágná celeritáte vénit, he came with great speed, the words mágná celeritáte, with great speed, are used for the adverb celeriter, quickly (or celerrimé, very quickly), and are called an Adverbial Phrase. .Clauses and SentencesSECTION: #278. Sentences are either Simple or Compound. 1. A sentence containing a single statement is called a Simple Sentence. 2. A sentence containing more than one statement is called a Compound Sentence, and each single statement in it is called a Clause. If one statement is simply added to another, the clauses are said to be Coordinate. They are usually connected by a Coordinate Conjunction (Sect: 223. a); but this is sometimes omitted:
If one statement modifies another in any way, the modifying clause is said to be Subordinate, and the clause modified is called the Main Clause. This subordination is indicated by some connecting word, either a Subordinate Conjunction (Sect: 223. b) or a Relative:
A sentence containing one or more subordinate clauses is sometimes called Complex. NOTE.--A subordinate clause may itself be modified by other subordinate clauses. SECTION: #279. Subordinate Clauses are of various kinds. A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb is called a Relative Clause:
For Relative Pronouns (or Relative Adverbs) serving to connect independent sentences, see Sect: 308. f. A clause introduced by an Adverb of Time is called a Temporal Clause:
A clause containing a Condition, introduced by sí, if (or some equivalent expression), is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence containing a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence. Thus, sí aquam gelidam biberint, prímó relevárí videntur (in b, above) is a Conditional Sentence, and sí ... biberint is a Conditional Clause. A clause expressing the Purpose of an action is called a Final Clause:
A clause expressing the Result of an action is called a Consecutive Clause:
.AGREEMENTSECTION: #280. A word is said to agree with another when it is required by usage to be in the same Gender, Number, Case, or Person. The following are the general forms of agreement, sometimes called the Four Concords: 1. The agreement of the Noun in Apposition or as Predicate (Sect: 281-284). 2. The agreement of the Adjective with its Noun (Sect: 286). 3. The agreement of the Relative with its Antecedent (Sect: 305). 4. The agreement of the Finite Verb with its Subject (Sect: 316). A word sometimes takes the gender or number, not of the word with which it should regularly agree, but of some other word implied in that word. This use is called Synesis, or cónstrúctió ad sénsum (construction according to sense). .AGREEMENT OF NOUNSSECTION: #281. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in Case. The descriptive noun may be either an Appositive (Sect: 282) or a Predicate noun (Sect: 283). Apposition SECTION: #282. A noun used to describe another, and standing in the same part of the sentence with the noun described, is called an Appositive, and is said to be in apposition:
Words expressing parts may be in apposition with a word including the parts, or vice versa (Partitive Apposition):
An Adjective may be used as an appositive:
An appositive generally agrees with its noun in Gender and Number when it can:
NOTE.--But such agreement is often impossible: as,-- ólim truncus eram fículnus, inútile lígnum (Hor. S. 1.8.1) , I once was a fig-tree trunk, a useless log. A common noun in apposition with a Locative (Sect: 427) is put in the Ablative, with or without the preposition in:
For a Genitive in apposition with a Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective, see Sect: 302. For the so-called Appositional Genitive, see Sect: 343. d. For the construction with nómen est, see Sect: 373. a. .Predicate Noun or AdjectiveSECTION: #283. With sum and a few other intransitive or passive verbs, a noun or an adjective describing or defining the subject may stand in the predicate. This is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective. The verb sum is especially common in this construction, and when so used is called the copula (i.e. connective). Other verbs which take a predicate noun or adjective are the socalled copulative verbs signifying to become, to be made, to be named, to appear, and the like. SECTION: #284. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after the copula sum or a copulative verb is in the same case as the Subject:
A predicate noun referring to two or more singular nouns is in the plural:
Sum in the sense of exist makes a complete predicate without a predicate noun or adjective. It is then called the substantive verb:
For Predicate Accusative and Predicate Ablative, see Sect: 392, 415. N. .AGREEMENT OF .ADJECTIVESAttributive and Predicate Adjectives SECTION: #285. Adjectives are either Attributive or Predicate. 1. An Attributive Adjective simply qualifies its noun without the intervention of a verb or participle, expressed or implied: as, -- bonus imperátor, a good commander; stellae lúcidae, bright stars; verbum Graecum, a Greek word. 2. All other adjectives are called Predicate Adjectives:
NOTE.--A predicate adjective may be used with sum or a copulative verb (Sect: 283); it may have the construction of a predicate accusative after a verb of naming, calling, or the like (Sect: 393. N.); or it may be used in apposition like a noun (Sect: 282. b). Rules of Agreement SECTION: #286. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case:
NOTE.--All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjective pronouns and to participles. With two or more nouns the adjective is regularly plural, but often agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive):
NOTE.--An adjective referring to two nouns connected by the preposition cum is occasionally plural (synesis, Sect: 280. a): as,-- Iuba cum Labiénó captí (B. Afr. 52), Juba and Labienus were taken. A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender and number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals implied (synesis, Sect: 280. a):
NOTE.--A superlative in the predicate rarely takes the gender of a partitive genitive by which it is limited: as,-- vélócissimum animálium delphínus est (Plin. N. H. 9.20), the dolphin is the swiftest [creature] of creatures. SECTION: #287. One adjective may belong in sense to two or more nouns of different genders. In such cases,:/p> 1. An Attributive Adjective agrees with the nearest noun:
2. A Predicate Adjective may agree with the nearest noun, if the Nouns form one connected idea:
NOTE.--This is only when the copula agrees with the nearest subject (Sect: 317. c). 3. But generally, a Predicate Adjective will be masculine, if nouns of different genders mean living beings; neuter, if things without life:
4. If nouns of different genders include both living beings and things without life, a Predicate Adjective is sometimes masculine (or feminine), sometimes neuter, and sometimes agrees in gender with the nearest if that is plural:
Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a Predicate Adjective in the neuter plural (cf. Sect: 289. c):
Adjectives used SubstantivelySECTION: #288. Adjectives are often used as Nouns (substantively), the masculine usually to denote men or people in general of that kind, the feminine women, and the neuter things: omnés, all men (everybody). omnia, all things (everything). máiórés, ancestors. minórés, descendants. Rómání, Romans. barbarí, barbarians. líberta, a freedwoman. Sabínae, the Sabine wives. sapiéns, a sage (philosopher). amícus, a friend. boní, the good (good people). bona, goods, property. NOTE.--The plural of adjectives, pronouns, and participles is very common in this use. The singular is comparatively rare except in the neuter (Sect: 289. a, c) and in words that have become practically nouns. Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often modified by other adjectives or by the possessive genitive:
When ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of an adjective, a noun must be added:
Many adjectives are used substantively either in the singular or the plural, with the added meaning of some noun which is understood from constant association:
NOTE.--These adjectives are specific in meaning, not generic like those in Sect: 288. They include the names of winds and months (Sect: 31). For Nouns used as Adjectives, see Sect: 321. c. For Adverbs used like Adjectives, see Sect: 321. d. SECTION: #289. Neuter Adjectives are used substantively in the following special senses: The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an abstract quality: raptó vívere, to live by plunder. in áridó, on dry ground.
The neuter plural is used to signify objects in general having the quality denoted, and hence may stand for the abstract idea: honesta, honorable deeds (in general). praeterita, the past (lit., bygones).
A neuter adjective may be used as an appositive or predicate noun with a noun of different gender (cf. Sect: 287. a):
A neuter adjective may be used as an attributive or a predicate adjective with an infinitive or a substantive clause:
Adjectives with Adverbial ForceSECTION: #290. An adjective, agreeing with the subject or object, is often used to qualify the action of the verb, and so has the force of an adverb:
.Comparatives and SuperlativesSECTION: #291. Besides their regular signification (as in English), the forms of comparison are used as follows: The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of a quality: as,-- brevior, rather short; audácior, too bold. The Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a very high degree of a quality without implying a distinct comparison: as,-- móns altissimus, a very high mountain. NOTE.--The Superlative of Eminence is much used in complimentary references to persons and may often be translated by the simple positive. With quam, vel, or únus the Superlative denotes the highest possible degree:
NOTE 1.--A high degree of a quality is also denoted by such adverbs as admodum, valdé, very, or by per or prae in composition (Sect: 267. d. 1): as,-- valdé malus, very bad= pessimus; permágnus, very great; praealtus, very high (or deep). NOTE 2.--A low degree of a quality is indicated by sub in composition: as,-- subrústicus, rather clownish, or by minus, not very; minimé, not at all; parum, not enough; nón satis, not much. NOTE 3.--The comparative máiórés (for máiórés nátú, greater by birth) has the special signification of ancestors; so minórés often means descendants. For the Superlative with quisque, see Sect: 313. b. For the construction of a substantive after a Comparative, see Sect: 406, 407; for that of a clause, see Sect: 535. c, 571. a. For the Ablative of Degree of Difference with a Comparative ( multó etc.), see Sect: 414. SECTION: #292. When two qualities of an object are compared, both adjectives are in the Comparative:
NOTE.--So also with adverbs: as,-- libentius quam vérius (Mil. 78) , with more freedom than truth. Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive:
NOTE.--A comparative and a positive, or even two positives, are sometimes connected by quam. This use is rarer and less elegant than those before noticed:
SECTION: #293. Superlatives (and more rarely Comparatives) denoting order and succession--also medius, [ céterus], reliquus--usually designate not what object, but what part of it, is meant:
NOTE.--A similar use is found in sérá ( multá) nocte, late at night, and the like. But medium viae, the middle of the way; multum diéí, much of the day, also occur. 1 Observe that the classes defined in a-e are not mutually exclusive, but that a single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative clause is usually subordinate, and may be at the same time temporal or conditional: and subordinate clauses may be coordinate with each other .PRONOUNSSECTION: #294. A Pronoun indicates some person or thing without either naming or describing it. Pronouns are derived from a distinct class of roots, which seem to have denoted only ideas of place and direction (Sect: 228. 2), and from which nouns or verbs can very rarely be formed. They may therefore stand for Nouns when the person or thing, being already present to the senses or imagination, needs only to be pointed out, not named. Some pronouns indicate the object in itself, without reference to its class, and have no distinction of gender. These are Personal Pronouns. They stand syntactically for Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns. Other pronouns designate a particular object of a class, and take the gender of the individuals of that class. These are called Adjective Pronouns. They stand for Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives. Others are used in both ways; and, though called adjective pronouns, may also be treated as personal, taking, however, the gender of the object indicated. In accordance with their meanings and uses, Pronouns are classified as follows: Personal Pronouns (Sect: 295). Interrogative Pronouns (Sect: 333). Demonstrative Pronouns (Sect: 296). Relative Pronouns (Sect: 303). Reflexive Pronouns (Sect: 299). Indefinite Pronouns (Sect: 309). Possessive Pronouns (Sect: 302). .Personal Pronouns SECTION: #295. The Personal Pronouns have, in general, the same constructions as nouns. The personal pronouns are not expressed as subjects, except for distinction or emphasis:
The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that in -um being used partitively (Sect: 346), and that in - í oftenest objectively (Sect: 348):
NOTE 1.--The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are occasionally used objectively (Sect: 348): as,-- cupidus vestrum (Verr. 3.224) , fond of you; cústós vestrum (Cat. 3.29) , the guardian of you (your guardian). NOTE 2.--"One of themselves"is expressed by únus ex suís or ipsís (rarely ex sé), or únus suórum. The Latin has no personal pronouns of the third person except the reflexive sé. The want is supplied by a Demonstrative or Relative (Sect: 296. 2, 308. f) Demonstrative Pronouns SECTION: #296. Demonstrative Pronouns are used either adjectively or substantively. 1. As adjectives, they follow the rules for the agreement of adjectives and are called Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives (Sect: 286, 287):
2. As substantives, they are equivalent to personal pronouns. This use is regular in the oblique cases, especially of is:
An adjective pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or predicate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which it refers (cf. Sect: 306):
SECTION: #297. The main uses of híc, ille, iste, and is are the following: Híc is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, or thought). It is hence called the demonstrative of the first person. It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; sometimes for "the latter"of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writing; more rarely for "the former" when that, though more remote on the written page, is nearer the speaker in time, place, or thought. Often it refers to that which has just been mentioned. Ille is used of what is remote (in time, etc.); and is hence called the demonstrative of the third person. It is sometimes used to mean "the former’Äù; also (usually following its noun) of what is famous or well-known; often (especially the neuter illud) to mean "the following.’Äù Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness: often in allusion to the person addressed,--hence called the demonstrative of the second person. It especially refers to one's opponent (in court, etc.), and frequently implies antagonism or contempt. Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and is especially common as a personal pronoun. It does not denote any special object, but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards explained by a relative. Often it is merely a correlative to the relative quí:
The pronouns híc, ille, and is are used to point in either direction, back to something just mentioned or forward to something about to be mentioned. The neuter forms often refer to a clause, phrase, or idea:
The demonstratives are sometimes used as pronouns of reference, to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned:
NOTE.--But the ordinary English use of that of is hardly known in Latin. Commonly the genitive construction is continued without a pronoun, or some other construction is preferred:
SECTION: #298. The main uses of .ídem and .ipse are as follows: When a quality or act is ascribed with emphasis to a person or thing already named, is or ídem (often with the concessive quidem) is used to indicate that person or thing:
NOTE.--So rarely with ille: as,-- nunc dextrá ingemináns ictús, nunc ille sinistrá (Aen. 5.457) , now dealing redoubled blows with his right hand, now (he) with his left. [In imitation of the Homeric ho ge: cf. Aen. 5.334; 9.796.] Idem, the same, is often used where the English requires an adverb or adverbial phrase (also, too, yet, at the same time):
NOTE.--This is really the same use as in a above, but in this case the pronoun cannot be represented by a pronoun in English. The intensive ipse, self, is used with any of the other pronouns, with a noun, or with a temporal adverb for the sake of emphasis:
NOTE 1.--The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English by just, very, mere, etc. NOTE 2.--In English, the pronouns himself etc. are used both intensively (as, he will come himself) and reflexively (as, he will kill himself): in Latin the former would be translated by ipse, the latter by sé or sésé. Ipse is often used alone, substantively, as follows: 1. As an emphatic pronoun of the third person:
2. To emphasize an omitted subject of the first or second person:
3. To distinguish the principal personage from subordinate persons:
Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of a reflexive (see Sect: 300. b). Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the real emphasis in English is on a reflexive in the predicate:
.Reflexive PronounsSECTION: #299. The Reflexive Pronoun ( sé), and usually its corresponding possessive ( suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause:
For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases of the personal pronouns ( meí, tuí, etc.) and the corresponding possessives ( meus, tuus, etc.) are used:
SECTION: #300. In a subordinate clause of a complex sentence there is a double use of Reflexives. 1. The reflexive may always be used to refer to the subject of its own clause (Direct Reflexive):
2. If the subordinate clause expresses the words or thought of the subject of the main clause, the reflexive is regularly used to refer to that subject (Indirect Reflexive):
NOTE.--Sometimes the person or thing to which the reflexive refers is not the grammatical subject of the main clause, though it is in effect the subject of discourse: Thus,-- cum ipsí deó nihil minus grátum futúrum sit quam nón omnibus patére ad sé plácandum viam (Legg. 2.25) , since to God himself nothing will be less pleasing than that the way to appease him should not be open to all men. If the subordinate clause does not express the words or thought of the main subject, the reflexive is not regularly used, though it is occasionally found:
Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of an indirect reflexive, either to avoid ambiguity or from carelessness; and in later writers is sometimes found instead of the direct reflexive:
SECTION: #301. Special uses of the Reflexive are the following: The reflexive in a subordinate clause sometimes refers to the subject of a suppressed main clause:
The reflexive may refer to any noun or pronoun in its own clause which is so emphasized as to become the subject of discourse:
NOTE.--Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs is absorbed: as,-- studeó sánáre sibi ipsós (Cat. 2.17) , I am anxious to cure these men for their own benefit (i.e. ut sání sibi sint). Suus is used for one's own as emphatically opposed to that of others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any word in it:
The reflexive may depend upon a verbal noun or adjective:
The reflexive may refer to the subject implied in an infinitive or verbal abstract used indefinitely:
Inter sé ( nós, vós), among themselves (ourselves, yourselves), is egularly used to express reciprocal action or relation:
.Possessive PronounsSECTION: #302. The Possessive Pronouns are derivative adjectives, which take the gender, number, and case of the noun to which they belong, not those of the possessor:
To express possession and similar ideas the possessive pronouns are regularly used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pronouns (Sect: 343. a):
NOTE 1.--Exceptions are rare in classic Latin, common in later writers. For the use of a possessive pronoun instead of an Objective Genitive, see Sect: 348. a. NOTE 2.--The Interrogative Possessive cúius, - a, -um, occurs in poetry and early Latin: as,-- cúium pecus (Ecl. 3.1) , whose flock? The genitive cúius is generally used instead. The possessives have often the acquired meaning of peculiar to, favorable or propitious towards, the person or thing spoken of:
NOTE.--This use is merely a natural development of the meaning of the possessive, and the pronoun may often be rendered literally. The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronouns) when they are plainly implied in the context:
Possessive pronouns and adjectives implying possession are often used substantively to denote some special class or relation:
NOTE.--There is no reason to suppose an ellipsis here. The adjective becomes a noun like other adjectives (see Sect: 288). A possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and case with an implied noun or pronoun:
For the special reflexive use of the possessive suus, see Sect: 299, 300. .Relative PronounsSECTION: #303. A Relative Pronoun agrees with some word expressed or implied either in its own clause, or (often) in the antecedent (demonstrative) clause. In the fullest construction the antecedent is expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a corresponding demonstrative to which the relative refers: as,-- iter in ea loca facere coepit, quibus in locís esse Germánós audiébat (B. G. 4.7) , he began to march into those PLACES in which PLACES he heard the Germans were. But one of these nouns is commonly omitted. The antecedent is in Latin very frequently (rarely in English) found in the relative clause, but more commonly in the antecedent clause. Thus relatives serve two uses at the same time: 1. As Nouns (or Adjectives) in their own clause: as,-- eí quí Alesiae obsídébantur (B. G. 7.77) , those who were besieged at Alesia. 2. As Connectives: as,--T. Balventius, quí superióre annó prímum pílum dúxerat ( id. 5.35), Titus Balventius, who the year before had been a centurion of the first rank. When the antecedent is in a different sentence, the relative is often equivalent to a demonstrative with a conjunction: as,-- quae cum ita sint (= et cum ea ita sint), [and] since this is so. The subordinating force did not belong to the relative originally, but was developed from an interrogative or indefinite meaning specialized by use. But the subordinating and the later connective force were acquired by quí at such an early period that the steps of the process cannot now be traced. SECTION: #304. A Relative Pronoun indicates a relation between its own clause and some substantive. This substantive is called the Antecedent of the relative. Thus, in the sentence--
the relative quod connects its antecedent nihil with the predicate fás esset, indicating a relation between the two. SECTION: #305. A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in Gender and Number; but its Case depends on its construction in the clause in which it stands:
NOTE.--This rule applies to all relative words so far as they are variable in form: as, quális, quantus, quícumque, etc. If a relative has two or more antecedents, it follows the rules for the agreement of predicate adjectives (Sect: 286, 287):
For the Person of the verb agreeing with the Relative, see Sect: 316. a. SECTION: #306. A Relative generally agrees in gender and number with an appositive or predicate noun in its own clause, rather than with an antecedent of different gender or number (cf. Sect: 296. a):
NOTE.--This rule is occasionally violated: as,-- flúmen quod appellátur Tamesis (B. G. 5.11) , a river which is called the Thames. A relative occasionally agrees with its antecedent in case (by attraction):
NOTE.--Occasionally the antecedent is attracted into the case of the relative: urbem quam statuó vestra est (Aen. 1.573) , the city which I am founding is yours. Naucratem, quem conveníre voluí, in náví nón erat (Pl. Am. 1009) , Naucrates, whom I wished to meet, was not on board the ship. A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied antecedent:
NOTE.--So regularly when the antecedent is implied in a possessive pronoun: as, -- nostra ácta, quós tyrannós vocás (Vat. 29) , the deeds of us, whom you call tyrants. [Here quós agrees with the nostrum (genitive plural) implied in nostra.] Antecedent of the RelativeSECTION: #307. The Antecedent Noun sometimes appears in both clauses, but usually only in the one that precedes. Sometimes it is wholly omitted. The antecedent noun may be repeated in the relative clause:
The antecedent noun may appear only in the relative clause, agreeing with the relative in case:
NOTE.--In this case the relative clause usually comes first (cf. Sect: 308. d) and a lemonstrative usually stands in the antecedent clause:
The antecedent may be omitted, especially if it is indefinite:
The phrase id quod or quae rés may be used (instead of quod alone) to refer to a group of words or an idea:
NOTE.--But quod alone often occurs: as,--Cassius noster, quod mihi mágnae voluptátí fuit, hostem reiiécerat (Fam. 2.10) , our friend Cassius--which was a great satisfaction to me--had driven back the enemy. The antecedent noun, when in apposition with the main clause, or with some word of it, is put in the relative clause:
A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) belonging to the antecedent may stand in the relative clause:
SECTION: #308. In the use of Relatives, the following points are to be observed: The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in English:
When two relative clauses are connected by a copulative conjunction, a relative pronoun sometimes stands in the first and a demonstrative in the last:
A relative clause in Latin often takes the place of some other construction in English,--particularly of a participle, an appositive, or a noun of agency:
In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually comes first, often containing the antecedent noun (cf. Sect: 307. b):
NOTE.--In colloquial language, the relative clause in such cases often contains a redundant demonstrative pronoun which logically belongs in the antecedent clause: as,-- ille quí cónsulté cavet, diútiné útí bene licet partum bene (Plaut. Rud. 1240), he who is on his guard, he may long enjoy what he has well obtained. The relative with an abstract noun may be used in a parenthetical clause to characterize a person, like the English such:
to pró vestrá prúdentiá.]
A relative pronoun (or adverb) often stands at the beginning of an independent sentence or clause, serving to connect it with the sentence or clause that precedes:
NOTE.--This arrangement is common even when another relative or an interrogative follows. The relative may usually be translated by an English demonstrative, with or without and. A relative adverb is regularly used in referring to an antecedent in the Locative case; so, often, to express any relation of place instead of the formal relative pronoun:
The relatives quí, quális, quantus, quot, etc. are often rendered simply by as in English:
The general construction of relatives is found in clauses introduced by relative adverbs: as, ubi, quó, unde, cum, quáré. .Indefinite PronounsSECTION: #309. The Indefinite Pronouns are used to indicate that some person or thing is meant, without designating what one. SECTION: #310. Quis, quispiam, aliquis, quídam, are particular indefinites, meaning some, a certain, any. Of these, quis, any one, is least definite, and quídam, a certain one, most definite; aliquis and quispiam, some one, stand between the two:
The indefinite quis is rare except in the combinations sí quis, if any; nisi quis, if any ... not; né quis, lest any, in order that none; num quis ( ecquis), whether any; and in relative clauses. The compounds quispiam and aliquis are often used instead of quis after sí, nisi, né, and num, and are rather more emphatic:
SECTION: #311. In a particular negative aliquis ( aliquí), some one (some), is regularly used, where in a universal negative quisquam, any one, or úllus, any, would be required:
NOTE.--The same distinction holds between quis and aliquis on the one hand, and quisquam ( úllus) on the other, in conditional and other sentences when a negative is expressed or suggested:
SECTION: #312. Quívís or quílibet (any one you will), quisquam, and the corresponding adjective úllus, any at all, are general indefinites. Quívís and quílibet are used chiefly in affirmative clauses, quisquam and úllus in clauses where a universal negative is expressed or suggested:
NOTE.--The use of the indefinites is very various, and must be learned from the Lexicon and from practice. The choice among them may depend merely on the point of view of the speaker, so that they are often practically interchangeable. The differences are (with few exceptions) those of logic, not of syntax. SECTION: #313. The distributives quisque (every), uterque (each of two), and únus quisque (every single one) are used in general assertions:
Quisque regularly stands in a dependent clause, if there is one:
NOTE.-- Quisque is generally postpositive: as, suum cuique, to every man his own. Quisque is idiomatically used with superlatives and with ordinal numerals:
NOTE 1.--Two superlatives with quisque imply a proportion: as,-- sapientissimus quisque aequissimó animó moritur (Cat. M. 83) , the wisest men die with the greatest equanimity. NOTE 2.-- Quotus quisque has the signification of how many, pray? often in a disparaging sense (how few):
SECTION: #314. Némó, no one, is used of persons only:/p> 1. As a substantive:
2. As an adjective pronoun instead of núllus:
NOTE.--Even when used as a substantive, némó may take a noun in apposition: as,-- némó scríptor, nobody [who is] a writer. Núllus, no, is commonly an adjective; but in the genitive and ablative singular it is regularly used instead of the corresponding cases of némó, and in the plural it may be either an adjective or a substantive:
For nón némó, nón núllus ( nón núllí), see Sect: 326. a. .Alius and AlterSECTION: #315. Alius means simply other, another (of an indefinite number); alter, the other (of two), often the second in a series; céterí and reliquí, all the rest, the others; alteruter, one of the two:
NOTE.--Alter is often used, especially with negatives, in reference to an indefinite number where one is opposed to all the rest taken singly:
The expressions alter ... alter, the one ... the other, alius ... alius, one ... another, may be used in pairs to denote either division of a group or reciprocity of action:
Alius and alter are often used to express one as well as another (the other) of the objects referred to:
Alius repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same stem, expresses briefly a double statement:
VERBS.Agreement of Verb and SubjectSECTION: #316. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person: ego statuó, I resolve. senátus décrévit, the senate ordered.
NOTE.--In verb-forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with the subject in gender and number (Sect: 286):
A verb having a relative as its subject takes the person of the expressed or implied antecedent:
A verb sometimes agrees in number (and a participle in the verbform in number and gender) with an appositive or predicate noun:
.Double or .Collective SubjectSECTION: #317. Two or more Singular Subjects take a verb in the Plural:
NOTE.--So rarely (by synesis, Sect: 280. a) when to a singular subject is attached an ablative with cum: as,-- dux cum aliquot príncipibus capiuntur (Liv. 21.60) , the general and several leading men are taken. When subjects are of different persons, the verb is usually in the first person rather than the second, and in the second rather than the third:
NOTE.--In case of different genders a participle in a verb-form follows the rule for predicate adjectives (see Sect: 287. 2-4). If the subjects are connected by disjunctives (Sect: 223. a), or if they are considered as a single whole, the verb is usually singular:
NOTE.--So almost always when the subjects are abstract nouns. When a verb belongs to two or more subjects separately, it often agrees with one and is understood with the others:
A collective noun commonly takes a verb in the singular; but the plural is often found with collective nouns when individuals are thought of (Sect: 280. a):
NOTE 1.--The point of view may change in the course of a sentence: as,-- equitátum omnem ... quem habébat praemittit, quí videant (B. G. 1.15) , he sent ahead all the cavalry he had, to see (who should see). NOTE 2.--The singular of a noun regularly denoting an individual is sometimes used collectively to denote a group: as, Poenus, the Carthaginians; míles, the soldiery; eques, the cavalry. Quisque, each, and únus quisque, every single one, have very often a plural verb, but may be considered as in partitive apposition with a plural subject implied (cf. Sect: 282. a):
NOTE.--So also uterque, each (of two), and the reciprocal phrases alius ... alium alter ... alterum (Sect: 315. a). .Omission of Subject or VerbSECTION: #318. The Subject of the Verb is sometimes omitted: A Personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless emphatic:
An indefinite subject is often omitted: créderés, you would have supposed; putámus, we (people) think; dícunt, ferunt, perhibent, they say. A passive verb is often used impersonally without a subject expressed or understood (Sect: 208. d):
SECTION: #319. The verb is sometimes omitted: Dícó, fació, agó, and other common verbs are often omitted in familiar phrases:
The copula sum is very commonly omitted in the present indica tive and present infinitive, rarely (except by late authors) in the sub junctive:
1 That is, it does not stand first in its clause. 2 As, in taking things one by one off a pile, each thing is uppermost when you take it. .ADVERBSSECTION: #320. The proper function of Adverbs, as petrified case-forms, is to modify Verbs: as,--celeriter íre, to go with speed. It is from this use that they derive their name ( adverbium, from ad, to, and verbum, verb; see Sect: 241. b). They also modify adjectives, showing in what manner or degree the quality described is manifested: as, splendidé mendáx, gloriously false. More rarely they modify other adverbs: as, nimis graviter, too severely. Many adverbs, especially relative adverbs, serve as connectives, and are hardly to be distinguished from conjunctions (see Sect: 20. g. N.). SECTION: #321. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs. A Demonstrative or Relative adverb is often equivalent to the corresponding Pronoun with a preposition (see Sect: 308. g):
The participles dictum and factum, when used as nouns, are regularly modified by adverbs rather than by adjectives; so occasionally other perfect participles:
A noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may then be modified by an adverb:
NOTE.--Very rarely adverbs are used with nouns which have no adjective force bat which contain a verbal idea:
A few adverbs appear to be used like adjectives. Such are obviam, palam, sometimes contrá, and occasionally others:
NOTE.--In some cases one can hardly say whether the adverb is treated as an adjective modifying the noun, or the noun modified is treated as an adjective (as in c above). For propius, prídié, palam, and other adverbs used as prepositions, see Sect: 432. SECTION: #322. The following adverbs require special notice: Etiam ( et iam), also, even, is stronger than quoque, also, and usually precedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it:
Nuncmeans definitely now, in the immediate present, and is rarely used of the immediate past. Iam means now, already, at length, presently, and includes a reference to previous time through which the state of things described has been or will be reached. It may be used of any time. With negatives iam means (no) longer. Tum, then, is correlative to cum, when, and may be used of any time. Tunc, then, at that time, is a strengthened form of tum ( tum-ce, cf. nunc):
Certó means certainly, certé (usually) at least, at any rate:
Prímum means first (first in order, or for the first time), and implies a series of events or acts. Prímó means at first, as opposed to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the difference of time:
NOTE.--In enumerations, prímum (or prímó) is often followed by deinde, secondly, in the next place, or by tum, then, or by both in succession. Deinde may be several times repeated (secondly, thirdly, etc.). The series is often closed by dénique or postrémó, lastly, finally. Thus,-- prímum dé genere bellí, deinde dé mágnitúdine, tum dé imperátóre déligendó (Manil. 6) , first of the kind of war, next of its magnitude, then of the choice of a commander. Quidem, indeed, gives emphasis, and often has a concessive meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, etc.:
Né ... quidem means not even or not ... either. The emphatic word or words must stand between né and quidem:
NOTE.-- Equidem has the same senses as quidem, but is in Cicero confined to the first person. Thus,-- equidem adprobábó (Fam. 2.3.2) , I for my part shall approve. .CONJUNCTIONS\1 For the derivation and classification of adverbs, see Sect: 214-217. 2 For num-ce; cf. tunc (for *tum-ce). 3 For the classification of conjunctions, see Sect: 223, 224. SECTION: #323. Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect similar constructions, and are regularly followed by the same case or mood that precedes them:
Conjunctions of Comparison (as ut, quam, tamquam, quasi) also commonly connect similar constructions:
Two or more coordinate words, phrases, or sentences are often put together without the use of conjunctions (Asyndeton, Sect: 601. c):
1. Where there are more than two coordinate words etc., a conjunction, if used, is ordinarily used with all (or all except the first):
2. But words are often so divided into groups that the members of the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups themselves express the conjunction (or omit it):
3. The enclitic - que is sometimes used with the last member of a series, even when there is no grouping apparent:
Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly connected by a conjunction:
Often the same conjunction is repeated in two coordinate clauses:
Many adverbs are similarly used in pairs, as conjunctions, partly or wholly losing their adverbial force:
Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are used correla tively as conjunctions:
SECTION: #324. The following Conjunctions require notice: Et, and, simply connects words or clauses; - que combines more closely into one connected whole. - que is always enclitic to the word connected or to the first or second of two or more words connected:
Atque ( ac), and, adds with some emphasis or with some implied reflection on the word added. Hence it is often equivalent to and so, and yet, and besides, and then. But these distinctions depend very much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often untranslatable:
Atque ( ac), in the sense of as, than, is also used after words of comparison and likeness:
For and not, see Sect: 328. a. Sed and the more emphatic vérum or véró, but, are used to introduce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after negatives (not this ... but something else). At (old form ast) introduces with emphasis a new point in an argument, but is also used like the others; sometimes it means at least. At enim is almost always used to introduce a supposed objection which is presently to be overthrown. At is more rarely used alone in this sense. Autem, however, now, is the weakest of the adversatives, and often marks a mere transition and has hardly any adversative force perceptible. Atquí, however, now, sometimes introduces an objection and sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod sí, but if, and if, now if, is used to continue an argument. NOTE.--Et, - que, and atque ( ac) are sometimes used where the English idiom would suggest but, especially when a negative clause is followed by an affirmative clause continuing the same thought: as,-- impetum hostés ferre nón potuérunt ac terga vertérunt (B. G. 4.35) , the enemy could not stand the onset, but turned their backs. Aut, or, excludes the alternative; vel (an old imperative of voló) and - ve give a choice between two alternatives. But this distinction is not always observed:
Síve ( seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions (if either ... or if), but also with alternative words and clauses, especially with two names for the same thing:
Vel, even, for instance, is often used as an intensive particle with no alternative force: as,-- vel minimus, the very least. Nam and namque, for, usually introduce a real reason, formally expressed, for a previous statement; enim (always postpositive), a less important explanatory circumstance put in by the way; etenim (for, you see; for, you know; for, mind you) and its negative neque enim introduce something self-evident or needing no proof.
Ergó, therefore, is used of things proved formally, but often has a weakened force. Igitur, then, accordingly, is weaker than ergó and is used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque, therefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences from the nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. All of these are often used merely to resume a train of thought broken by a digression or parenthesis. Idcircó, for this reason, on this account, is regularly followed (or preceded) by a correlative (as, quia, quod, sí, ut, né), and refers to the special point introduced by the correlative.
Autem, enim, and véró are postpositive; so generally igitur and often tamen. Two conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together for the sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what precedes: as, at véró>, but in truth, but surely, still, however; itaque ergó, accordingly then; namque, for; et- enim, for, you see, for of course (Sect: 324. h). For Conjunctions introducing Subordinate Clauses, see Syntax. .Negative Particles\SECTION: #325. In the use of the Negative Particles, the following points are to be observed: SECTION: #326. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative:
Many compounds or phrases of which nón is the first part express an indefinite affirmative:
Two negatives of which the second is nón (belonging to the predicate) express a universal affirmative:
A statement is often made emphatic by denying its contrary (Litotes, Sect: 641):
NOTE.--Compare nón núllus, nón némó, etc., in a above. SECTION: #327. A general negation is not destroyed:/p> 1. By a following né ... quidem, not even, or nón modo, not only:
2. By succeeding negatives each introducing a separate subordinate member:
3. By neque introducing a coordinate member:
SECTION: #328. The negative is frequently joined with a conjunction or with an indefinite pronoun or adverb. Hence the forms of negation in Latin differ from those in English in many expressions:
In the second of two connected ideas, and not is regularly expressed by neque ( nec), not by et nón:
NOTE.--Similarly nec quisquam is regularly used for et némó; neque úllus for et núllus; nec umquam for et numquam; néve (neu), for et né. SECTION: #329. The particle immo, nay, is used to contradict some part of a preceding statement or question, or its form; in the latter case, the same statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that immo becomes nearly equivalent to yes (nay but, nay rather):
Minus, less (especially with sí, if, quó, in order that), and minimé, least, often have a negative force:
.QUESTIONSForms of Interrogation 1 That is, they do not stand first in their clause. 2 For a list of Negative Particles see Sect: 217. e. SECTION: #330. Questions are either Direct or Indirect. 1. A Direct Question gives the exact words of the speaker: quid est? what is it? ubi sum? where am I? 2. An Indirect Question gives the substance of the question, adapted to the form of the sentence in which it is quoted. It depends on a verb or other expression of asking, doubting, knowing, or the like:
SECTION: #331. Questions in Latin are introduced by special interrogative words, and are not distinguished by the order of words, as in English. NOTE.--The form of Indirect Questions (in English introduced by whether, or by an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is in Latin the same as that of Direct; the difference being only in the verb, which in indirect questions is regularly in the Subjunctive (Sect: 574). SECTION: #332. A question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed by adding the enclitic - ne to the emphatic word:
The interrogative particle - ne is sometimes omitted:
NOTE.--In such cases, as no sign of interrogation appears, it is often doubtful whether the sentence is a question or an ironical statement. When the enclitic - ne is added to a negative word, as in nónne, an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a negative answer:
NOTE.--In Indirect Questions num commonly loses its peculiar force and means simply whether. The particle - ne often when added to the verb, less commonly when added to some other word, has the force of nónne:
NOTE 1.--This was evidently the original meaning of - ne; but in most cases the negative force was lost and - ne was used merely to express a question. So the English interrogative no? shades off into eh? NOTE 2.--The enclitic - ne is sometimes added to other interrogative words: as, utrumne, whether? anne, or; quantane (Hor. S. 2.3.317) , how big? quóne maló ( id. 2.3.295), by what curse? SECTION: #333. A question concerning some special circumstance is formed by prefixing to the sentence an interrogative pronoun or adverb as in English (Sect: 152):
NOTE.--A question of this form becomes an exclamation by changing the tone of the voice: as,--
The particles - nam (enclitic) and tandem may be added to interrogative pronouns and adverbs for the sake of emphasis:
NOTE--Tandem is sometimes added to verbs:
.Double QuestionsSECTION: #334. A Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry as to which of two or more supposed cases is the true one. SECTION: #335. In Double or Alternative Questions, utrum or - ne, whether, stands in the first member; an, anne, or, annón, necne, or not, in the second; and usually an in the third, if there be one:
NOTE.--Anne for an is rare. Necne is rare in direct questions, but in indirect questions it is commoner than annón. In poetry - ne ... - ne sometimes occurs. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first member; in which case an or - ne ( anne, necne) may stand in the second:
Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied, and an ( anne) alone asks the question,--usually with indignation or surprise:
Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum may ask a question to which there is no alternative:
The following table exhibits the various forms of alternative questions:
NOTE.--From double (alternative) questions must be distinguished those which are in themselves single, but of which some detail is alternative. These have the common disjunctive particles aut or vel (- ve). Thus,-- quaeró num iniústé aut improbé fécerit (Off. 3.54) , I ask whether he acted unjustly or even dishonestly. Here there is no double question. The only inquiry is whether the man did either of the two things supposed, not which of the two he did. Question and Answer SECTION: #336. There is no one Latin word in common use meaning simply yes or no. In answering a question affirmatively, the verb or some other emphatic word is generally repeated; in answering negatively, the verb, etc., with nón or a similar negative:
An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause is sometimes used to answer a direct question: 1. For YES: véró, in truth, true, no doubt, yes. ita véró, certainly (so in truth), etc. etiam, even so, yes, etc. sáné quidem, yes, no doubt, etc. ita, so, true, etc. ita est, it is so, true, etc.
2. For NO: nón, not so. núlló modó, by no means.
Examples are:
SECTION: #337. In answering a double question, one member of the alternative, or some part of it, must be repeated:
CONSTRUCTION OF .CASESFor a list of Interrogative Particles, see Sect: 217. d. SECTION: #338. The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence. The most primitive way of expressing such relations was by mere juxtaposition of uninflected forms. From this arose in time composition, i.e. the growing together of stems, by means of which a complex expression arises with its parts mutually dependent. Thus such a complex as armi-gero- came to mean arm-bearing; fidi-cen-, playing on the lyre. Later, Cases were formed by means of suffixes expressing more definitely such relations, and Syntax began. But the primitive method of composition still continues to hold an important place even in the most highly developed languages. Originally the Indo-European family of languages, to which Latin belongs, had at least seven case-forms, besides the Vocative. But in Latin the Locative and the Instrumental were lostexcept in a few words (where they remained without being recognized as cases), and their functions were divided among the other cases. The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative express the simplest and perhaps the earliest case-relations. The Nominative is the case of the Subject, and generally ends in -s. The Vocative, usually without a termination, or like the Nominative (Sect: 38. a), perhaps never had a suffix of its own.The Accusative, most frequently formed by the suffix -m, originally connected the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily expressed by a verb proper, but as well by a noun or an adjective (see Sect: 386). The Genitive appears to have expressed a great variety of relations and to have had no single primitive meaning; and the same may be true of the Dative. The other cases perhaps at first expressed relations of place or direction (TO, FROM, AT, WITH), though this is not clear in all instances. The earlier meanings, however, have become confused with each other, and in many instances the cases are no longer distinguishable in meaning or in form. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost from its confusion with the Dative and Ablative; and its function was often performed by the Ablative, which is freely used to express the place where (Sect: 421). To indicate the case-relations--especially those of place--more precisely, Prepositions (originally adverbs) gradually came into use. The case-endings, thus losing something of their significance, were less distinctly pronounced as time went on (see Sect: 36, phonetic decay), and prepositions have finally superseded them in the modern languages derived from Latin. But in Latin a large and various body of relations was still expressed by caseforms. It is to be noticed that in their literal use cases tended to adopt the preposition, and in their figurative uses to retain the old construction. (See Ablative of Separation, Sect: 402-404; Ablative of Place and Time, Sect: 421 ff.) The word cásus, case, is a translation of the Greek pt?sis, a falling away (from the erect position). The term pt?sis was originally applied to the Oblique Cases (Sect: 35. g), to mark them as variations from the Nominative, which was called orth<, erect ( cásus réctus). The later name Nominative ( cásus nóminátívus) is from nóminó, and means the naming case. The other case-names (except Ablative) are of Greek origin. The name Genitive ( cásus genetívus) is a translation of genik< [ pt?sis], from genos (class), and refers to the class to which a thing belongs. Dative ( cásus datívus, from dó) is translated from dotik<, and means the case of giving. Accusative ( accúsátívus, from accúsó) is a mistranslation of aitiatik< (the case of causing), from aitia, cause, and meant to the Romans the case of accusing. The name Vocative ( vocátívus, from vocó) is translated from kl SECTION: #339. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative:
For the omission of a pronominal subject, see Sect: 295. a. The nominative may be used in exclamations:
NOTE.--But the accusative is more common (Sect: 397. d). SECTION: #340. The Vocative is the case of direct address:
A noun in the nominative in apposition with the subject of the imperative mood is sometimes used instead of the vocative:
The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used in poetry instead of the nominative, where the verb is in the second person:
The vocative macte is used as a predicate in the phrase macte estó ( virtúte), success attend your (valor):
NOTE.--As the original quantity of the final e in macte is not determinable, it may be that the word was an adverb, as in bene est and the like. SECTION: #341. The Genitive is regularly used to express the relation of one noun to another. Hence it is sometimes called the adjective case, to distinguish it from the Dative and the Ablative, which may be called adverbial cases. The uses of the Genitive may be classified as follows: I. Genitive with Nouns: 1. Of Possession (Sect: 343). 2. Of Material (Sect: 344). 3. Of Quality (Sect: 345). 4. Of the Whole, after words designating a Part (Partitive, Sect: 346). 5. With Nouns of Action and Feeling (Sect: 348). II. Genitive with Adjectives: 1. After Relative Adjectives (or Verbals) (Sect: 349). 2. Of Specification (later use) (Sect: 349. d). III. Genitive with Verbs: 1. Of Memory, Feeling, etc. (Sect: 350, 351, 354). 2. Of Accusing, etc. (Charge or Penalty) (Sect: 352). SECTION: #342. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive. This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the preposition of, sometimes by the English genitive (or possessive) case:
But observe the following equivalents:
Possessive Genitive SECTION: #343. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to which an object, quality, feeling, or action belongs:
NOTE 1.--The Possessive Genitive may denote (1) the actual owner (as in Alexander's dog) or author (as in Cicero's writings), or (2) the person or thing that possesses some feeling or quality or does some act (as in Cicero's eloquence, the strength of the bridge, Catiline's evil deeds). In the latter use it is sometimes called the Subjective Genitive; but this term properly includes the possessive genitive and several other genitive constructions (nearly all, in fact, except the Objective Genitive, Sect: 347). NOTE 2.--The noun limited is understood in a few expressions:
For the genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjective is often used,--regularly for the possessive genitive of the personal pronouns (Sect: 302. a):
The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, connected with its noun by a verb (Predicate Genitive):
NOTE.--These genitives bear the same relation to the examples in Sect: 343 that a predicate noun bears to an appositive (Sect: 282, 283). An infinitive or a clause, when used as a noun, is often limited by a genitive in the predicate:
NOTE 1.--This construction is regular with adjectives of the third declension instead of the neuter nominative (see the last two examples). NOTE 2.--A derivative or possessive adjective may be used for the genitive in this construction, and must be used for the genitive of a personal pronoun:
A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in apposition (Appositional Genitive) (Sect: 282):
1 Some of the endings, however, which in Latin are assigned to the dative and ablative are doubtless of locative or instrumental origin (see p. 34, footnote). 2 The e-vocative of the second declension is a form of the stem (Sect: 45. c). Possessive Genitive SECTION: #344. The Genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a thing consists (cf. Sect: 403): talentum aurí, a talent of gold. flúmina lactis, rivers of milk. Genitive of Quality SECTION: #345. The Genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when the quality is modified by an adjective:
NOTE.--Compare Ablative of Quality (Sect: 415). In expressions of quality, the genitive or the ablative may often be used indifferently: as, praestantí prúdentiá vir, a man of surpassing wisdom; maximí animí homó, a man of the greatest courage. In classic prose, however, the genitive of quality is much less common than the ablative; it is practically confined to expressions of measure or number, to a phrase with eiius, and to nouns modified by mágnus, maximus, summus, or tantus. In general the Genitive is used rather of essential, the Ablative of special or incidental characteristics. The genitive of quality is found in the adjective phrases eiius modí, cúius modí (equivalent to tális, such; quális, of what sort):
The genitive of quality, with numerals, is used to define measures of length, depth, etc. (Genitive of Measure):
For the Genitive of Quality used to express indefinite value, see Sect: 417. Partitive Genitive SECTION: #346. Words denoting a Part are followed by the Genitive of the Whole to which the part belongs. Partitive words, followed by the genitive, are:/p>
1. Nouns or Pronouns (cf. alsobelow):
2. Numerals, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Pronominal words like alius, alter, núllus, etc.:
3. Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns, used as nouns:
NOTE 1.--In classic prose neuter adjectives (not pronominal) seldom take a partitive genitive, except multum, tantum, quantum, and similar words. NOTE 2.--The genitive of adjectives of the third declension is rarely used partitively: nihil noví (genitive), nothing new; but,-- nihil memorábile (nominative), nothing worth mention (not nihil memorábilis). 4. Adverbs, especially those of Quantity and of Place:
The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case:
Cardinal numerals (except mília) regularly take the Ablative with é ( ex) or dé instead of the Partitive Genitive. So also quídam, a certain one, commonly, and other words occasionally:
Uterque, both (properly each), and quisque, each, with Nouns are regularly used as adjectives in agreement, but with Pronouns take a partitive genitive:
Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any thing take a case in agreement, and not the partitive genitive. So also words denoting a part when only that part is thought of:
Objective Genitive SECTION: #347. The Objective Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. SECTION: #348. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the Genitive of the Object: cáritás tuí, affection for you. désíderium ótí, longing for rest. vacátió múneris, relief from duty. grátia beneficí, gratitude for kindness. fuga malórum, refuge from disaster. precátió deórum, prayer to the gods. contentió honórum, struggle for office. opínió virtútis, reputation for valor. NOTE.--This usage is an extension of the idea of belonging to (Possessive Genitive). Thus in the phrase odium Caesaris, hate of Caesar, the hate in a passive sense belongs to Caesar, as odium, though in its active sense he is the object of it, as hate (cf. a). The distinction between the Possessive (subjective) and the Objective Genitive is very unstable and is often lost sight of. It is illustrated by the following example: the phrase amor patris, love of a father, may mean love felt by a father, a father's love (subjective genitive), or love towards a father (objective genitive). The objective genitive is sometimes replaced by a possessive pronoun or other derivative adjective:
Rarely the objective genitive is used with a noun already limited by another genitive:
A noun with a preposition is often used instead of the objective genitive:
NOTE.--So also in late writers the dative of reference (cf. ¬ ß 366. b): as,-- longó belló máteria (Tac. H. 1.89) , resources for a long war. SECTION: #349. Adjectives requiring an object of reference govern the Objective Genitive. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites govern the genitive:
Participles in -ns govern the genitive when they are used as adjectives, i.e. when they denote a constant disposition and not a particular act:
NOTE 1.--Participles in -ns, when used as participles, take the case regularly governed by the verb to which they belong: as,--Sp. Maelium régnum appetentem interémit (Cat. M. 56), he put to death Spurius Maelius, who was aspiring to royal power. NOTE 2.--Occasionally participial forms in -ns are treated as participles (see note 1) even when they express a disposition or character: as,-- virtús quam alií ipsam temperantiam dícunt esse, alií obtemperantem temperantiae praeceptís et eam subsequentem (Tusc. 4.30) , observant of the teachings of temperance and obedient to her. Verbals in -áx (Sect: 251) govern the genitive in poetry and later Latin:
The poets and later writers use the genitive with almost any adjective, to denote that with reference to which the quality exists (Genitive of Specification):
NOTE.--The Genitive of Specification is only an extension of the construction with adjectives requiring an object of reference (Sect: 349). Thus callidus denotes knowledge; pauper, want; púrus, innocence; and so these words in a manner belong to the classes under a. For the Ablative of Specification, the prose construction, see Sect: 418. For Adjectives of likeness etc. with the Genitive, apparently Objective, see Sect: 385. c. For Adjectives with animí (locative in origin), see Sect: 358. Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting SECTION: #350. Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accusative or the Genitive of the object: Meminí takes the Accusative when it has the literal sense of retaining in the mind what one has seen, heard, or learned. Hence the accusative is used of persons whom one remembers as acquaintances, or of things which one has experienced. So oblívíscor in the opposite sense,--to forget literally, to lose all memory of a thing (very rarely, of a person).
Meminí takes the Genitive when it means to be mindful or regardful of a person or thing, to think of somebody or something (often with special interest or warmth of feeling). So oblívíscor in the opposite sense,--to disregard, or dismiss from the mind,--and the adjective oblítus, careless or regardless.
NOTE 1.--With both meminí and oblívíscor the personal and reflexive pronouns are regularly in the Genitive; neuter pronouns and adjectives used substantively are regularly in the Accusative; abstract nouns are often in the Genitive. These uses come in each instance from the natural meaning of the verbs (as defined above). NOTE 2.-- Meminí in the sense of mention takes the Genitive: as,-- eundem Achillam cúius suprá meminimus (B. C. 3.108) , that same Achillas whom I mentioned above. Reminíscor is rare. It takes the Accusative in the literal sense of call to mind, recollect; the Genitive in the more figurative sense of be mindful of:
Recordor, recollect, recall, regularly takes the Accusative:
NOTE.-- Recordor takes the genitive once (Pison. 12); it is never used with a personal object, but may be followed by dé with the ablative of the person or thing (cf. Sect: 351. N.):
Verbs of Reminding SECTION: #351. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the person a Genitive of the thing; except in the case of a neuter pronoun, which is put in the accusative (cf. Sect: 390. c). So admoneó, commoneó, commonefació, commonefíó. But moneó with the genitive is found in late writers only.
NOTE.--All these verbs often take dé with the ablative, and the accusative of nouns as well as of pronouns is sometimes used with them:
Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting SECTION: #352. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting, take the Genitive of the Charge or Penalty:
Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are--
NOTE.--The origin of these genitive constructions is pointed at by pecúniae damnáre (Gel. 20.1.38) , to condemn to pay money, in a case of injury to the person; quantae pecúniae iúdicátí essent ( id.xx.1.47), how much money they were adjudged to pay, in a mere suit for debt; cónfessí aeris ac débití iúdicátí ( id.xx.1. 42), adjudged to owe an admitted sum due. These expressions show that the genitive of the penalty comes from the use of the genitive of value to express a sum of money due either as a debt or as a fine. Since in early civilizations all offences could be compounded by the payment of fines, the genitive came to be used of other punishments, not pecuniary. From this to the genitive of the actual crime is an easy transition, inasmuch as there is always a confusion between crime and penalty (cf. Eng. guilty of death). It is quite unnecessary to assume an ellipsis of crímine or iúdició. SECTION: #353. Other constructions for the Charge or Penalty are:/p>
1. The Ablative of Price: regularly of a definite amount of fine, and often of indefinite penalties (cf. Sect: 416):
2. The Ablative with dé, or the Accusative with inter, in idiomatie expressions:
NOTE.--The accusative with ad and in occurs in later writers to express the penalty: as,-- ad mortem (Tac. Ann. 16.21) , to death; ad ( in) metalla, to the mines. Verbs of .Feeling SECTION: #354. Many verbs of feeling take the Genitive of the object which excites the feeling. Verbs of pity, as misereor and miseréscó, take the genitive:
NOTE.--But miseror, commiseror, bewail, take the accusative: as,-- commúnem condiciónem miserárí (Mur. 55) , bewail the common lot. As impersonals, miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet (or pertaesum est), take the genitive of the cause of the feeling and the accusative of the person affected:
With miseret, paenitet, etc., the cause of the feeling may be expressed by an infinitive or a clause:
NOTE.-- Miseret etc. are sometimes used personally with a neuter pronoun as subject: as,-- nón té haec pudent (Ter. Ad. 754) , do not these things shame you? .Interest and .Réfert SECTION: #355. The impersonals interest and réfert take the Genitive of the person (rarely of the thing) affected. The subject of the verb is a neuter pronoun or a substantive clause:
Instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the corresponding possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine after interest or réfert:
NOTE.--This is the only construction with réfert in classic prose, except in one passage in Sallust (see example above). The accusative with ad is used with interest and réfert to express the thing with reference to which one is interested:
NOTE 1.--Very rarely the person is expressed by ad and the accusative, or (with réfert) by the dative (probably a popular corruption):
NOTE 2.--The degree of interest is expressed by a genitive of value, an adverb, or an adverbial accusative. Verbs of Plenty and Want SECTION: #356. Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the genitive (cf. Sect: 409. a. N.):
NOTE.--Verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the ablative (see Sect: 409. a, <
Genitive with Special Verbs SECTION: #357. The Genitive is used with certain special verbs. The genitive sometimes follows potior, get possession of; as always in the phrase potírí rérum, to be master of affairs:
NOTE.--But potior usually takes the ablative (see Sect: 410). Some other verbs rarely take the genitive:/p>
1. By analogy with those mentioned in Sect: 354:
2. As akin to adjectives which take the genitive:
3. In imitation of the Greek:
SECTION: #358. The apparent Genitive animí (really Locative) is used with a few verbs and adjectives of feeling and the like:
SECTION: #359. Peculiar Genitive constructions are the following: A poetical genitive occurs rarely in exclamations, in imitation of the Greek (Genitive of Exclamation):
The genitive is often used with the ablatives causá, grátiá, for the sake of; ergó, because of; and the indeclinable ínstar, like; also with prídié, the day before; postrídié, the day after; tenus, as far as:
NOTE 1.--Of these the genitive with causá is a development from the possessive genitive and resembles that in nómen ínsániae (Sect: 343.d). The others are of various origin. NOTE 2.--In prose of the Republican Period prídié and postrídié are thus used only in the expressions prídié ( postrídié) eiius diéí, the day before (after) that (cf. "the eve, the morrow of that day’Äù). Tacitus uses the construction with other words: as,-- postrídié ínsidiárum, the day after the plot. For the accusative, see Sect: 432. a. Tenus takes also the ablative (p. 136). SECTION: #360. The Dative is probably, like the Genitive, a grammatical case, that is, it is a form appropriated to the expression of a variety of relations other than that of the direct object. But it is held by some to be a Locative with the primary meaning of to or towards, and the poetic uses (like it clámor caeló, Aen. 5.451) are regarded as survivals of the original use. In Latin the Dative has two classes of meanings: 1. The Dative denotes an object not as caused by the action, or directly affected by it (like the Accusative), but as reciprocally sharing in the action or receiving it consciously or actively. Thus in dedit pueró librum, he gave the boy a book, or fécit mihi iniúriam, he did me a wrong, there is an idea of the boy's receiving the book, and of my feeling the wrong. Hence expressions denoting persons, or things with personal attributes, are more likely to be in the dative than those denoting mere things. So in Spanish the dative is used whenever a person is the object of an action; yo veo al hombre, I see [to] the man. This difference between the Accusative and the Dative (i.e. between the Direct and the Indirect Object) depends upon the point of view implied in the verb or existing in the mind of the writer. Hence Latin verbs of similar meaning (to an English mind) often differ in the case of their object (see Sect: 367. a). 2. The Dative is used to express the purpose of an action or that for which it serves (see Sect: 382). This construction is especially used with abstract expressions, or those implying an action. These two classes of Datives approach each other in some cases and are occasionally confounded, as in Sect: 383, 384. The uses of the Dative are the following: 1. Indirect Object (general use): 1. With Transitives (Sect: 362). 2. With Intransitives (Sect: 366-372). 2. Special or Idiomatic Uses: 1. Of Possession (with esse) (Sect: 373). 2. Of Agency (with Gerundive) (Sect: 374). 3. Of Reference ( datívus commodí) (Sect: 376-381). 4. Of Purpose or End (predicate use) (Sect: 382). 5. Of Fitness etc. (with Adjectives) (Sect: 383, 384). INDIRECT OBJECT SECTION: #361. The Dative is used to denote the object indirectly affected by an action. This is called the Indirect Object (Sect: 274). It is usually denoted in English by the objective with to:
INDIRECT OBJECT WITH TRANSITIVES SECTION: #362. The Dative of the Indirect Object with the Accusative of the Direct may be used with any transitive verb whose meaning allows (see Sect: 274):
Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive use, and take either the Accusative with the Dative, or the Dative alone:
SECTION: #363. Certain verbs implying motion vary in their construction between the Dative of the Indirect Object and the Accusative of the End of Motion (Sect: 426, 427): 1. Some verbs implying motion take the Accusative (usually with ad or in) instead of the Indirect Object, when the idea of motion prevails:
2. On the other hand, many verbs of motion usually followed by the Accusative with ad or in, take the Dative when the idea of motion is merged in some other idea:
SECTION: #364. Certain verbs may take either the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing, or (in a different sense) the Accusative of the person and the Ablative of the thing:
NOTE 1.-- Interdícó, forbid, takes either (1) the Dative of the person and the Ablative of the thing, or (2) in later writers, the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing:
NOTE 2.--The Dative with the Accusative is used in poetry with many verbs of preventing, protecting, and the like, which usually take the Accusative and Ablative. Interclúdó and prohibeó sometimes take the Dative and Accusative, even in prose:
SECTION: #365. Verbs which in the active voice take the Accusative and Dative retain the Dative when used in the passive:
1 Such are dónó, impertió, induó, exuó, adspergó, é ´nspergó, circumdó, and in poetry accingó, implicó, and similar verbs. SECTION: #366. The Dative of the Indirect Object may be used with any Intransitive verb whose meaning allows:
NOTE 1.--Intransitive verbs have no Direct Object. The Indirect Object, therefore, in these cases stands alone as in the second example (but cf. Sect: 362. a). NOTE 2.-- Cédó, yield, sometimes takes the Ablative of the thing along with the Dative of the person: as,-- cédere alicui possessióne hortórum (cf. Mil. 75), to give up to one the possession of a garden. Many phrases consisting of a noun with the copula sum or a copulative verb are equivalent to an intransitive verb and take a kind of indirect object (cf. Sect: 367. a. N.2):
The dative is sometimes used without a copulative verb in a sense approaching that of the genitive (cf. Sect: 367. d, 377):
NOTE.--The cases in a and b differ from the constructions of Sect: 367. a. N.2 and Sect: 377 in that the dative is more closely connected in idea with some single word to which it serves as an indirect object. Indirect Object with Special Verbs SECTION: #367. Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare,take the Dative:
In these verbs the Latin retains an original intransitive meaning. Thus: invidére, to envy, is literally to look askance at; servíre is to be a slave to; suádére is to make a thing pleasant (sweet) to. Some verbs apparently of the same meanings take the Accusative. Such are iuvó, adiuvó, help; laedó, injure; iubeó, order; défició, fail; délectó, please:
NOTE 1.-- Fídó and cónfídó take also the Ablative (Sect: 431): as,-- multum nátúrá locí cónfídébant (B. G. 3.9) , they had great confidence in the strength of their position. NOTE 2.--Some common phrases regularly take the dative precisely like verbs of similar meaning. Such are--praestó esse, be on hand (cf. adesse); mórem gerere, humor (cf. mórigerárí); grátum facere, do a favor (cf. grátificárí); dictó audiéns esse, be obedient (cf. oboedíre); cui fidem habébat (B. G. 1.19) , in whom he had confidence (cf. cónfídébat). So also many phrases where no corresponding verb exists. Such are-- bene (male, pulchré, aegré, etc.) esse, be well (ill, etc.) off; iniúriam facere, do injustice to; diem dícere, bring to trial (name a day for, etc.); agere grátiás, express one's thanks; habére grátiam, feel thankful; referre grátiam, repay a favor; opus esse, be necessary; damnum dare, inflict an injury; acceptum ( expénsum) ferre ( esse), credit (charge); honórem habére, to pay honor to. Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intransitively with the Dative without perceptible difference of meaning. Such are adúlor, aemulor, déspéró, praestólor, medeor:
Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intransitively with the Dative with a difference of meaning:
A few verbal nouns (as ínsidiae, ambush; obtemperátió, obedience) rarely take the dative like the corresponding verbs:
NOTE.--In these cases the dative depends immediately upon the verbal force of the noun and not on any complex idea (cf. Sect: 366. a, b). SECTION: #368. The Dative is used:/p>
1. With the impersonals libet (lubet), it pleases, and licet, it is allowed:
2. With verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male:
NOTE.--These are not real compounds, but phrases, and were apparently felt as such by the Romans. Thus,-- satis offició meó, satis illórum voluntátí quí á mé hóc petívérunt factum esse arbitrábor (Verr. 5.130) , I shall consider that enough has been done for my duty, enough for the wishes of those who asked this of me. 3. With grátificor, grátulor, núbó, permittó, plaudó, probó, studeó, supplicó, excelló:
NOTE.-- Misceó and iungó sometimes take the dative (see Sect: 413. a. N.). Haereó usually takes the ablative, with or without in, rarely the dative: as,-- haerentem capití corónam (Hor. S. 1.10.49) , a wreath clinging to the head. The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which would in prose require a noun with a preposition. So especially with verbs of contending (Sect: 413. b):
For the Dative instead of ad with the Accusative, see Sect: 428. h. SECTION: #369. Some verbs ordinarily intransitive may have an Accusative of the direct object along with the Dative of the indirect (cf. Sect: 362. a):
With the passive voice this dative may be retained:
1 These include, among others, the following: adversor, cédó, crédó, faveó, fídó, fgnóscó, imperó, indulgeó, invideó, íráscor, minitor, noceó, parcó, páreó, placeó, resistó, servió, studeó, suádeó ( persuádeó), suscénseó, temperó ( obtemperó). 2 See the Lexicon under caveó , convenió, cupió, ínsistó, maneó, praevertó, recipió, renúntió, solvó, succédó Indirect Object with Compounds SECTION: #370. Many verbs compounded with ao, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pró, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative of the indirect object:
In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but on the compound verb in its acquired meaning. Hence, if the acquired meaning is not suited to an indirect object, the original construction of the simple verb remains. Thus in convocat suós, he calls his men together, the idea of calling is not so modified as to make an indirect object appropriate. So hominem interficere, to make way with a man (kill him). But in praeficere imperátórem belló, to put a man as commander-in-chief in charge of a war, the idea resulting from the composition is suited to an indirect object (see also b, Sect: 371, 388. b). NOTE 1.--Some of these verbs, being originally transitive, take also a direct object: as,-- né offerámus nós perículís (Off. 1.83) , that we may not expose ourselves to perils. NOTE 2.--The construction of Sect: 370 is not different in its nature from that of Sect: 362, 366, and 367; but the compound verbs make a convenient group. Some compounds of ad, ante, ob, with a few others, have acquired a transitive meaning, and take the accusative (cf. Sect: 388. b):
The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb take the dative:
SECTION: #371. When place or motion is distinctly thought of, the verbs mentioned in Sect: 370 regularly take a noun with a preposition:
NOTE.--But the usage varies in different authors, in different words, and often in the same word and the same sense. The Lexicon must be consulted for each verb. SECTION: #372. Intransitive verbs that govern the dative are used impersonally in the passive (Sect: 208. d). The dative is retained (cf. Sect: 365):
NOTE.--In poetry the personal construction is sometimes found: as,-- cúr invideor (Hor. A. P. 56) , why am I envied? 1 Such verbs are aggredior, adeó, antecédó, anteeó, antegredior, convenió, ineó, obeó, offendó, oppugnó, praecédó, subeó Dative of .Possession SECTION: #373. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession:
NOTE.--The Genitive or a Possessive with esse emphasizes the possessor; the Dative, the fact of possession: as,-- liber est meus, the book is MINE (and no one's else): est mihi liber, I HAVE a book (among other things). With nómen est, and similar expressions, the name is often put in the Dative by a kind of apposition with the person; but the Nominative is also common:
NOTE.--In early Latin the dative is usual; Cicero prefers the nominative, Livy the dative; Sallust uses the dative only. In later Latin the genitive also occurs (cf. Sect: 343. d): as,--Q. Metelló Macedonicí nómen inditum est (Vell. 1.11) , to Quintus Metellus the name of Macedonicus was given. Désum takes the dative; so occasionally absum (which regularly has the ablative):
Dative of the Agent SECTION: #374. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive to denote the person on whom the necessity rests:
This is the regular way of expressing the agent with the Second or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (Sect: 196). NOTE 1.--The Ablative of the Agent with ab (Sect: 405) is sometimes used with the Second Periphrastic Conjugation when the Dative would be ambiguous or when a stronger expression is desired:
NOTE 2.--The Dative of the Agent is either a special use of the Dative of Possession or a development of the Dative of Reference (Sect: 376). SECTION: #375. The Dative of the Agent is common with perfect participles (especially when used in an adjective sense), but rare with other parts of the verb:
The Dative of the Agent is used by the poets and later writers with almost any passive verb:
The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used after videor, seem:
NOTE.--The verb probáre, approve (originally a mercantile word), takes a Dative of Reference (Sect: 376), which has become so firmly attached that it is often retained with the passive, seemingly as Dative of Agent:
Dative of .Reference SECTION: #376. The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but on the general meaning of the sentence (Dative of Reference). The dative in this construction is often called the Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage,as denoting the person or thing for whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action is performed.
NOTE.--In this construction the meaning of the sentence is complete without the dative, which is not, as in the preceding constructions, closely connected with any single word. Thus the Dative of Reference is easily distinguishable in most instances even when the sentence consists of only two words, as in the first example. SECTION: #377. The Dative of Reference is often used to qualify a whole idea, instead of the Possessive Genitive modifying a single word:
SECTION: #378. The Dative is used of the person from whose point of view an opinion is stated or a situation or a direction is defined. This is often called the Dative of the Person Judging,but is merely a weakened variety of the Dative of Reference. It is used:/p>
1. Of the mental point of view (in my opinion, according to me. etc.):
2. Of the local point of view (as you go in etc.). In this use the person is commonly denoted indefinitely by a participle in the dative plural:
NOTE.--The Dative of the Person Judging is (by a Greek idiom) rarely modified by vóléns, voléns (participles of nóló, voló), or by some similar word:
SECTION: #379. The Dative of Reference is used idiomatically without any verb in colloquial questions and exclamations:
The dative of reference is sometimes used after interjections:
NOTE.--To express FOR--meaning instead of, in defence of, in behalf of--the ablative with pró is used:
1 Datívus commodí aut incommodí. 2 Datívus iúdicantis .Ethical Dative SECTION: #380. The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to show a certain interest felt by the person indicated. This construction is called the Ethical Dative.It is really a faded variety of the Dative of Reference.
1 Compare "I'll rhyme you so eight years together.’Shaks.--As You Like It, 3.2. 2 Datívus éthicus. Dative of .Separation SECTION: #381. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative (especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation (Sect: 401). Such are compounds of ab, dé, ex, and a few of ad:
NOTE.--The Dative of Separation is a variety of the Dative of Reference. It represents the action as done to the person or thing, and is thus more vivid than the Ablative The distinct idea of motion requires the ablative with a preposition--thus generally with names of things (Sect: 426. 1):
NOTE.--Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing with a preposition are both used with the same verb: as,-- mihi praeda dé manibus éripitur (Verr. 2.1.142) , the booty is wrested from my hands. Dative of the Purpose or End SECTION: #382. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another Dative of the person or thing affected. This use of the dative, once apparently general, remains in only a few constructions, as follows: 1. The dative of an abstract noun is used to show that for which a thing serves or which it accomplishes, often with another dative of the person or thing affected:
NOTE 1.--This construction is often called the Dative of Service, or the Double Dative construction. The verb is usually sum. The noun expressing the end for which is regularly abstract and singular in number and is never modified by an adjective, except one of degree ( mágnus, minor, etc.), or by a genitive. NOTE 2.--The word frúgí used as an adjective is a dative of this kind:
2. The Dative of Purpose of concrete nouns is used in prose in a few military expressions, and with freedom in poetry :
For the Dative of the Gerundive denoting Purpose, see Sect: 505. b. Dative with Adjectives SECTION: #383. The Dative is used after Adjectives or Adverbs, to denote that to which the given quality is directed, for which it exists, or towards which it tends. NOTE.--The dative with certain adjectives is in origin a Dative of Purpose or End. SECTION: #384. The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few Adverbs) of fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites:
NOTE 1.--So, also, in poetic and colloquial use, with ídem: as,-- invítum quí servat idem facit occídentí (Hor. A. P. 467) , he who saves a man against his will does the same as one who kills him. NOTE 2.--Adjectives of likeness are often followed by atque ( ac), as. So also the adverbs aequé, pariter, similiter, etc. The pronoun ídem has regularly atque or a relative:
SECTION: #385. Other constructions are sometimes found where the dative might be expected: Adjectives of fitness or use take oftener the Accusative with ad to denote the purpose or end; but regularly the Dative of persons:
Adjectives and nouns of inclination and the like may take the Accusative with in or ergá:
Some adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few others, ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possessive Genitive:
1. The genitive is especially used with these adjectives when they are used wholly or approximately as nouns:
2. After similis, like, the genitive is more common in early writers. Cicero regularly uses the genitive of persons, and either the genitive or the dative of things. With personal pronouns the genitive is regular ( meí, tuí, etc.), and also in vérí similis, probable:
NOTE.--The genitive in this construction is not objective like those in Sect: 349, but possessive (cf. Sect: 343). For the Dative or Accusative with propior, proximus, propius, proximé, see Sect: 432. a. SECTION: #386. The Accusative originally served to connect the noun more or less loosely with the verb-idea, whether expressed by a verb proper or by a verbal noun or adjective. Its earliest use was perhaps to repeat the verb-idea as in the Cognate Accusative (run a race, fight a battle, see Sect: 390). From this it would be a short step to the Factitive Accusative (denoting the result of an act, as in make a table, drill a hole, cf. Sect: 273. N.1). From this last could easily come the common accusative (of Affecting, break a table, plug a hole, see Sect: 387. a). Traces of all these uses appear in the language, and the loose connection of noun with verb-idea is seen in the use of stems in composition (cf. Sect: 265.3).). It is impossible, however, to derive the various constructions of the accusative with certainty from any single function of that case. The uses of the accusative may be classified as follows: I. Primary Object: 1. Directly affected by the Action ( Sect: 387. a). 2. Effect of the Action Thing produced (Sect: 387. a). Cognate Accusative (Sect: 390). II. Two Accusatives: 1. Predicate Accusative (Of Naming etc.) (Sect: 393). 2. Of Asking or Teaching (Sect: 396). 3. Of Concealing (Sect: 396. c). III. Idiomatic Uses: 1. Adverbial (Sect: 397. a). 2. Of Specification ( Greek Accusative) (Sect: 397. b). 3. Of Extent and Duration (Sect: 423, 425). 4. Of Exclamation (Sect: 397. d). 5. Subject of Infinitive (Sect: 397. e). 1 Adjectives of this kind are accommodátus, aptus; amícus, inimícus, ínfestus, invísus, molestus; idóneus, opportúnus, proprius; útilis, inútilis; affínis, fínitimus, propinquus, vícínus; pár, dispár, similis, dissimilis; iúcundus, grátus; nótus, ígnótus, and others. 2 Such are aequális, affínis, aliénus, amícus, cógnátus, commúnis, cónsanguineus, contrárius, dispár, familiáris, fínitimus, inimícus, necessárius, pár, pecúliáris, propinquus, proprius (regularly genitive), sacer, similis, superstes, vícínus. 3 Compare armiger, armor-bearer, with arma gerere, to bear arms; fidicen, lyre-player, with fidibus canere, to (play on) sing to the lyre. Compare also istanc táctió (Plaut.), the [act of] touching her, with istanc tangere, to touch her (Sect: 388. d. N.2). Direct Object SECTION: #387. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative (Sect: 274). The Accusative of the Direct Object denotes (1) that which is directly affected, or (2) that which is caused or produced by the action of the verb:
NOTE.--There is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be distinguished from intransitive. Verbs which usually take a direct object (expressed or implied) are called transitive, but many of these are often used intransitively or absolutely. Thus timeó, I fear, is transitive in the sentence inimícum timeó, I fear my enemy, but intransitive (absolute) in nólí timére, don't be afraid. Again, many verbs are transitive in one sense and intransitive in another: as,-- Helvétiós superávérunt Rómání, the Romans overcame the Helvetians; but nihil superábat, nothing remained (was left over). So also many verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively with a slight change of meaning: as,-- rídés, you are laughing; but mé rídés, you're laughing at me. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative (Sect: 275):
SECTION: #388. Certain special verbs require notice. Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing feeling, take an accusative, and may be used in the passive:
For the Cognate Accusative with verbs of taste, smell, and the like, see Sect: 390. a. NOTE.--Some verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively (especially in poetry) from a similarity of meaning with other verbs that take the accusative:
Verbs of motion, compounds of circum, tráns, and praeter, and a few others, frequently become transitive, and take the accusative (cf. Sect: 370. b):
NOTE.--Among such verbs are some compounds of ad, in, per, and sub. The accusative is used after the impersonals decet, dédecet, délectat, iuvat, oportet, fallit, fugit, praeterit:
NOTE 1.--So after later in poetry and post-classical prose: as,-- latet plérósque (Plin. N. H. 2.82), it is unknown to most persons. NOTE 2.--These verbs are merely ordinary transitives with an idiomatic signification. Hence most of them are also used personally. NOTE 3.-- Decet and latet sometimes take the dative:
A few verbs in isolated expressions take the accusative from a forcing of their meaning. Such expressions are:
NOTE 1.--These accusatives are of various kinds. The last example approaches the cognate construction (cf. the second example under Sect: 390). NOTE 2.--In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived from transitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the accusative:
SECTION: #389. Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used absolutely, having their natural object in the ablative with dé (Sect: 273. N. 2):
For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see Sect: 354. b. For the Accusative after the impersonal Gerundive with esse, see Sect: 500. 3. .Cognate Accusative SECTION: #390. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other manner. This construction is called the Cognate Accusative or Accusative of Kindred Signification:
Verbs of taste, smell, and the like take a cognate accusative of the quality:
The cognate accusative is often loosely used by the poets:
A neuter pronoun or an adjective of indefinite meaning is very common as cognate accusative (cf. Sect: 214. d, 397. a):
So in many common phrases:
NOTE 1.--In these cases substantives with a definite meaning would be in some other construction:
NOTE 2.--In some of these cases the connection of the accusative with the verb has so faded out that the words have become real adverbs: as,-- multum, plús, plúrimum; plérumque, for the most part, generally; céterum, cétera, for the rest, otherwise, but; prímum, first; nihil, by no means, not at all; aliquid, somewhat; quid, why; facile, easily. So in the comparative of adverbs (Sect: 218). But the line cannot be sharply drawn, and some of the examples under b may be classed as adverbial. TWO ACCUSATIVES SECTION: #391. Some transitive verbs take a second accusative in addition to their Direct Object. This second accusative is either (1) a Predicate Accusative or (2) a Secondary Object. Predicate Accusative SECTION: #392. An accusative in the Predicate referring to the same person or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposition with it, is called a Predicate Accusative. SECTION: #393. Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct object:
NOTE.--The predicate accusative may be an adjective: as,-- hominés mítís reddidit et mánsuétós (Inv. 1.2) , has made men mild and gentle. In changing from the active voice to the passive, the Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (Sect: 284):
Secondary Object SECTION: #394. The Accusative of the Secondary Object is used (along with the direct object) to denote something more remotely affected by the action of the verb. SECTION: #395. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally governed by the preposition:
NOTE 1.--This construction is common only with trádúcó, tráició, and tránsportó. The preposition is sometimes repeated with compounds of tráns, and usually with compounds of the other prepositions. The ablative is also used:
NOTE 2.--The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb: as,-- Belgae Rhénum tráductí sunt (B. G. 2.4) , the Belgians were led over the Rhine. NOTE 3.--The double construction indicated in Sect: 395 is possible only when the force of the preposition and the force of the verb are each distinctly felt in the compound, the verb governing the direct, and the preposition the secondary object. But often the two parts of the compound become closely united to form a transitive verb of simple meaning. In this case the compound verb is transitive solely by virtue of its prepositional part and can have but one accusative,--the same which was formerly the secondary object, but which now becomes the direct. So tráició comes to mean either (1) to pierce (anybody) [by hurling] or (2) to cross (a river etc.):
In these examples hominem and Rhodanum, which would be secondary objects if tráiécit were used in its primary signification, have become the direct objects. Hence in the passive construction they become the subjects and are put in the nominative:
The poetical tráiectus lóra (Aen. 2.273) , pierced with thongs, comes from a mixture of two constructions: (1) eum tráiécit lóra, he rove thongs through him,and (2) eum tráiécit lórís, he pierced him with thongs. In putting the sentence into a passive form, the direct object of the former ( lóra) is irregularly kept, and the direct object of the latter ( eum) is made the subject. SECTION: #396. Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two accusatives, one of the Person (direct object), and the other of the Thing (secondary object):
NOTE.--This construction is found in classical authors with óró, poscó, reposcó, rogó, interrogó, flágitó, doceó. Some verbs of asking take the ablative of the person with a preposition instead of the accusative. So, always, petó ( ab), quaeró ( ex, ab, dé); usually poscó ( ab), flágitó ( ab), postuló ( ab), and occasionally others:
With the passive of some verbs of asking or teaching, the person or the thing may be used as subject (cf. c. N.2):
NOTE.--The accusative of the thing may be retained with the passive of rogó, and of verbs of teaching, and occasionally with a few other verbs:
But with most verbs of asking in prose the accusative of the thing becomes the subject nominative, and the accusative of the person is put in the ablative with a preposition: as,-- né postulantur quidem vírés á senectúte (Cat. M. 34) , strength is not even expected of an old man (asked from old age). The verb céló, conceal, may take two accusatives, and the usually intransitive lateó, lie hid, an accusative of the person:
NOTE 1.--The accusative of the person with lateó is late or poetical (Sect: 388. c. N.1). NOTE 2.--All the double constructions indicated in ¬ ß 396 arise from the wavering meaning of the verbs. Thus doceó means both to show a thing, and to instruct a person; céló, to keep a person in the dark, and to hide a thing; rogó, to question a person, and to ask a question or a thing. Thus either accusative may be regarded as the direct object, and so become the subject of the passive (cf. b above), but for convenience the accusative of the thing is usually called secondary. 1 Perhaps not found in the active, but cf. tráiectó fúne (Aen. 5.488) . Idiomatic Uses SECTION: #397. The Accusative has the following special uses: The accusative is found in a few adverbial phrases (Adverbial Accusative):
The so-called synecdochical or Greek Accusative, found in poetry and later Latin, is used to denote the part affected:
NOTE.--This construction is also called the Accusative of Specification. In many apparently similar expressions the accusative may be regarded as the direct object of a verb in the middle voice (Sect: 156. a):
The Accusative is used in Exclamations:
NOTE 1.--Such expressions usually depend upon some long-forgotten verb. The substantive is commonly accompanied by an adjective. The use of -ne in some cases suggests an original question, as in quid? what? why? tell me. NOTE 2.--The omission of the verb has given rise to some other idiomatic accusatives. Such are:
The subject of an infinitive is in the accusative:
NOTE.--This construction is especially common with verbs of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving (Sect: 580). The accusative in later writers is sometimes used in apposition with a clause:
NOTE.--This construction is an extension (under Greek influence) of a usage more nearly within the ordinary rules, such as,-- Eumenem pródidére Antiochó, pácis mercédem ( Sall. Ep. Mith. 8) , they betrayed Eumenes to Antiochus, the price of peace. [Here Eumenes may be regarded as the price, although the real price is the betrayal.] For the Accusative of the End of Motion, see Sect: 427.2; for the Accusative of Duration of Time and Extent of Space, see Sect: 423, 425; for the Accusative with Prepositions, see Sect: 220. SECTION: #398. Under the name Ablative are included the meanings and, in part, the forms of three cases,--the Ablative proper, expressing the relation FROM; the Locative, IN; and the Instrumental, WITH or BY. These three cases were originally not wholly distinct in meaning, and their confusion was rendered more certain (1) by the development of meanings that approached each other and (2) by phonetic decay, by means of which these cases have become largely identical in form. Compare, for the first, the phrases á parte dexterá, ON the right; quam ob causam, FROM which cause; ad fámam, AT (in consequence of) the report; and, for the second, the like forms of the dative and ablative plural, the old dative in - é of the fifth declension (Sect: 96), and the loss of the original -d of the ablative (Sect: 49. e; cf. Sect: 43. N.1, 92. f, 214. a. N.). The relation of FROM includes separation, source, cause, agent, and comparison; that of WITH or BY, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, quality, and price; that of IN or AT, place, time, circumstance. This classification according to the original cases (to which, however, too great a degree of certainty should not be attached)is set forth in the following table: I. Ablative Proper (from) (Separative): 1. Of Separation, Privation, and Want (Sect: 400). 2. Of Source (participles of origin etc.) (Sect: 403). 3. Of Cause ( labóró, exsilió, etc.) (Sect: 404). 4. Of Agent (with ab after Passives) (Sect: 405). 5. Of Comparison (THAN) (Sect: 406). II. Instrumental Ablative (with): 1. Of Manner, Means, and Instrument (Sect: 408 ff.). 2. Of Object of the Deponents útor etc. (Sect: 410). 3. Of Accompaniment (with cum) (Sect: 413). 4. Of Degree of Difference (Sect: 414). 5. Of Quality (with Adjectives) (Sect: 415). 6. Of Price and Exchange (Sect: 416). 7. Of Specification (Sect: 418). 8. Ablative Absolute (Sect: 419). III. Locative Ablative (in, on, at): 1. Of Place where (commonly with in) (Sect: 421). 2. Of Time and Circumstance (Sect: 423). SECTION: #399. The Ablative is used to denote the relations expressed in English by the prepositions from; in, at; with, by:
1 Thus the Ablative of Cause may be, at least in part, of Instrumental origin, and the Ablative Absolute appears to combine the Instrumental and the Locative. Ablative of Separation SECTION: #400. Words signifying Separation or Privation are followed by the ablative. SECTION: #401. Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent, deprive, and want, take the Ablative (sometimes with ab or ex):
For the Genitive with verbs of separation and want, see Sect: 356. N. SECTION: #402. Verbs compounded with á, ab, dé, ex, (1) take the simple Ablative when used figuratively; but (2) when used literally to denote actual separation or motion, they usually require a preposition (Sect: 426. 1):
For the Dative used instead of the Ablative of Separation, see Sect: 381. For the Ablative of the actual place whence in idiomatic expressions, see Sect: 427. 1, 428. f. Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the ablative:
NOTE.--A preposition sometimes occurs:
For the Genitive with adjectives of want, see Sect: 349. a. Ablative of Source and Material SECTION: #403. The Ablative (usually with a preposition) is used to denote the Source from which anything is derived, or the Material of which it consists: 1. Source:
2. Material:
NOTE 1.--In poetry the preposition is often omitted. NOTE 2.--The Ablative of Material is a development of the Ablative of Source. For the Genitive of Material, see Sect: 344. Participles denoting birth or origin are followed by the Abla tive of Source, generally without a preposition:
NOTE 1.--A preposition ( ab, dé, ex) is usually expressed with pronouns, with the name of the mother, and often with that of other ancestors:
NOTE 2.--Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative of source: as,-- désíderávit C. Flegínátem Placentiá, A. Gránium Puteolís (B. C. 3.71) , he lost Caius Fleginas of Placentia, Aulus Granius of Puteoli. NOTE 3.--The Roman tribe is regularly expressed by the ablative alone: as,-- Q. Verrem Rómiliá (Verr. 1.23) , Quintus Verres of the Romilian tribe. Some verbs may take the Ablative of Material without a preposition. Such are cónstáre, cónsistere, and continérí.But with cónstáre, ex is more common:
The Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with facere, fierí, and similar words, in the sense of do with, become of:
The Ablative of Material with ex, and in poetry without a preposition, sometimes depends directly on a noun:
For Ablative of .Source instead of Partitive Genitive, see Sect: 346. c. Ablative of Cause SECTION: #404. The Ablative (with or without a preposition) is used to express Cause:
The Ablative of Cause without a preposition is used with labóró (also with ex), exsilió, exsultó, triumphó, lacrimó, árdeó:
For gaudeó and glórior, see Sect: 431. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is expressed by the ablative of cause; the object exciting the emotion often by obor propter with the accusative:
NOTE.--But these constructions are often confused: as,-- párére légibus propter metum (Par. 34) , to obey the laws on account of fear. [Here metum is almost equivalent to ’ Äúthe terrors of the law" and hence propter is used, though the ablative would be more natural.] The ablatives causá and grátiá, for the sake of, are used with a genitive preceding, or with a pronoun in agreement:
NOTE.--But grátiá with possessives in this use is rare. Ablative of .Agent SECTION: #405. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by the Ablative with á or ab:
NOTE 1.--This construction is developed from the Ablative of Source. The agent is conceived as the source or author of the action. NOTE 2.--The ablative of the agent (which requires á or ab) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of instrument, which has no preposition (Sect: 409). Thus -- occísus gladió, slain by a sword; but, occísus ab hoste, slain by an enemy. NOTE 3.--The ablative of the agent is commonest with nouns denoting persons, but it occurs also with names of things or qualities when these are conceived as performing an action and so are partly or wholly personified, as in the last example under the rule. The ablative of the agent with ab is sometimes used after intransitive verbs that have a passive sense:
The personal agent, when considered as instrument or means, is often expressed by per with the accusative, or by operá with a genitive or possessive:
NOTE 1.--The ablative of means or instrument is often used instead of the ablative of agent, especially in military phrases: as,-- haec excubitóribus tenébantur (B. G. 7.69) , these (redoubts) were held by means of sentinels. NOTE 2.--An animal is sometimes regarded as the means or instrument, sometimes as the agent. Hence both the simple ablative and the ablative with ab occur:
For the Dative of the Agent with the Gerundive, see Sect: 374. Ablative of .Comparison SECTION: #406. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Ablativesignifying than:
The idiomatic ablatives opínióne, spé, solitó, dictó, aequó, crédibilí, and iústó are used after comparatives instead of a clause:
SECTION: #407. The comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case<
The construction with quam is required when the first of the things compared is not in the Nominative or Accusative. NOTE 1.--There are several limitations on the use of the ablative of comparison even when the first of the things compared is in the nominative or accusative. Thus the quam construction is regularly used (1) when the comparative is in agreement with a genitive, dative, or ablative: as,-- senex est eó melióre condicióne quam aduléscéns (Cat. M. 68) , an old man is in this respect in a better position than a young man; and (2) when the second member of the comparison is modified by a clause: as,--minor fuit aliquantó is quí prímus fábulam dedit quam eí quí, etc. (Brut. 73), he who first presented a play was somewhat younger than those who, etc. NOTE 2.--The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose construction requires quam: as,--páne egeó iam mellítís potióre placentís (Hor. Ep. 1.10.11) , I now want bread better than honey-cakes. NOTE 3.--Relative pronouns having a definite antecedent never take quam in this construction, but always the ablative: as,-- réx erat Aenéás nóbís, quó iústior alter nec, etc. ( Aen. 1.544), Aeeas was our king, than whom no other [was] more righteous. In sentences expressing or implying a general negative the ablative (rather than quam) is the regular construction when the first member of the comparison is in the nominative or accusative:
After the comparatives plús, minus, amplius, longius, without quam, a word of measure or number is often used with no change in its case:
NOTE.--The noun takes the case required by the context, without reference to the comparative, which is in a sort of apposition: "seven hundred were taken [and] more.’Äù Alius is sometimes followed by the ablative in poetic and colloquial use; in formal prose it is followed by ac ( atque), et, more rarely by nisi, quam:
The comparative of an adverb is usually followed by quam, rarely by the ablative except in poetry:
NOTE.--Prepositions meaning before or beyond (as ante, prae, praeter, suprá) are sometimes used with a comparative: as,-- scelere ante aliós immánior omnís (Aen. 1.347) , more monstrous in crime than all other men. 1 As nátus, satus, éditus, genitus, ortus, prógnátus, generátus, crétus, creátus, oriundus. 2 The ablative with cónsistere and continérí is probably locative in origin (cf. Sect: 431). 3 The cause, in the ablative, is originally source, as is shown by the use of ab, dé, ex; but when the accusative with ad, ob, is used, the idea of cause arises from nearness. Occasionally it is difficult to distinguish between cause and means (which is the old Instrumental case) or circumstance (which is either the Locative or the Instrumental). 4 Originally a mercantile use: cf. ob decem minás, for the price of ten min ae. 5 This is a branch of the Ablative of Separation. The object with which anything is compared is the starting-point from which we reckon. Thus, " Cicero is eloquent’Äù; but, starting from him we come to Cato, who is "more so than he.ù USES OF THE ABLATIVE AS .INSTRUMENTAL SECTION: #408. Means, Instrument, Manner, and Accompaniment are denoted by the Instrumental Ablative (see Sect: 398), but some of these uses more commonly require a preposition. As they all come from one source (the old Instrumental Case) no sharp line can be drawn between them, and indeed the Romans themselves can hardly have thought of any distinction. Thus, in omnibus precibus órábant, they entreated with every [kind of] prayer, the ablative, properly that of means, cannot be distinguished from that of manner. Ablative of Means or Instrument SECTION: #409. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action:
The Ablative of Means is used with verbs and adjectives of filling, abounding, and the like:
NOTE.--In poetry the Genitive is often used with these words. Compleó and impleó sometimes take the genitive in prose (cf. Sect: 356); so regularly plénus and (with personal nouns) complétus and refertus (Sect: 349. a):
SECTION: #410. The deponents útor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, with several of their compounds,govern the Ablative:
NOTE.--This is properly an Ablative of Means (instrumental) and the verbs are really in the middle voice (Sect: 156. a). Thus útor with the ablative signifies I employ myself (or avail myself) by means of, etc. But these earlier meanings disappeared from the language, leaving the construction as we find it. Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase potíri rérum, to get control or be master of affairs (Sect: 357. a):
NOTE 1.--In early Latin, these verbs are sometimes transitive and take the accusative:
NOTE 2.--The Gerundive of these verbs is used personally in the passive as if the verb were transitive (but cf. Sect: 500. 3): as,-- Héraclió omnia útenda ac possidenda trádiderat (Verr. 2.46) , he had given over everything to Heraclius for his use and possession (to be used and possessed). SECTION: #411. Opus and úsus, signifying need, take the Ablative:
NOTE.--The ablative with úsus is not common in classic prose. With opus the ablative of a perfect participle is often found, either agreeing with a noun or used as a neuter abstract noun:
NOTE 1.--So rarely with úsus in comedy: as,-- quid istís úsust cónscríptís (Pl. Bacch. 749), what's the good of having them in writing? NOTE 2.--The omission of the noun gives rise to complex constructions: as,-- quid opus factóst (cf. B. G. 1.42), what must be done? [Cf. quid opus est fierí? with quó factó opus est?] Opus is often found in the predicate, with the thing needed in the nominative as subject:
Ablative of Manner SECTION: #412. The Manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative; usually with cum, unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun:
But cum is often used even when the ablative has a limiting adjective:
With such words of manner as modó, pactó, ratióne, rítú, ví, viá, and with stock expressions which have become virtually adverbs (as silentió, iúre, iniúriá), cum is not used:
NOTE.--So in poetry the ablative of manner often omits cum: as,-- ínsequitur cumuló aquae móns (Aen. 1.105) , a mountain of water follows in a mass. [Cf. murmure ( id. 1.124); rímís ( id. 1.123).] Ablative of Accompaniment SECTION: #413. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with cum:
The ablative is used without cum in some military phrases, and here and there by early writers:
NOTE.-- Misceó and iungó, with some of their compounds, and cónfundó take either (1) the Ablative of Accompaniment with or without cum, or (2) sometimes the Dative (mostly poetical or late):
Words of Contention and the like require cum:
NOTE.--But words of contention may take the Dative in poetry (see Sect: 368. a). Ablative of Degree of Difference SECTION: #414. With Comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the Degree of Difference:
The ablatives quó ... eó ( hóc), and quantó ... tantó, are used correlatively with comparatives, like the English the ... the:
NOTE.--To this construction are doubtless to be referred all cases of quó and eó ( hóc) with a comparative, even when they have ceased to be distinctly felt as degree of difference and approach the Ablative of Cause:
The Ablative of Comparison (Sect: 406) and the Ablative of Degree of Difference are sometimes used together with the same adjective:
But the construction with quam is more common. Ablative of Quality SECTION: #415. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an adjective or genitive modifier. This is called the Descriptive Ablative or Ablative of Quality:
NOTE.--The Ablative of Quality (like the Genitive of Quality, Sect: 345) modifies a substantive by describing it. It is therefore equivalent to an adjective, and may be either attributive or predicate. In this it differs from other ablatives, which are equivalent to adverbs. In expressions of quality the Genitive or the Ablative may often be used indifferently; but physical qualities are oftener denoted by the Ablative (cf. Sect: 345. N.):
Ablative of Price SECTION: #416. The price of a thing is put in the Ablative:
NOTE.--To this head is to be referred the Ablative of the Penalty (Sect: 353. 1). SECTION: #417. Certain adjectives of quantity are used in the Genitive to denote indefinite value. Such are mágní, parví, tantí, quantí, plúris, minóris:
NOTE.--These are really Genitives of Quality (Sect: 345. b). The genitive of certain colorless nouns is used to denote indefinite value. Such are nihilí ( nílí), nothing; assis, a farthing (rare); floccí (a lock of wool), a straw:
With verbs of exchanging, either the thing taken or the thing given in exchange may be in the Ablative of Price. Such are mútó, commútó, permútó, vertó:
NOTE.--With verbs of exchanging cum is often used, perhaps with a different conception of the action: as,--ariés ... cum croceó mútábit vellera lútó (Ecl. 4.44) , the ram shall change his fleece for [one dyed with] the yellow saffron. With verbs of buying and selling the simple Ablative of Price must be used, except in the case of tantí, quantí, plúris, minóris:
Ablative of Specification SECTION: #418. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which anything is or is done:
To this head are to be referred many expressions where the ablative expresses that in accordance with which anything is or is done:
NOTE.--As the Romans had no such categories as we make, it is impossible to classify all uses of the ablative. The ablative of specification (originally instrumental) is closely akin to that of manner, and shows some resemblance to means and cause. For the Supine in -ú as an Ablative of Specification, see Sect: 510. The adjectives dígnus and indígnus take the ablative:
NOTE 1.--So the verb dígnor in poetry and later prose: as,-- haud equidem tálí mé dígnor honóre (Aen. 1.335) , I do not deem myself worthy of such an honor. NOTE 2.-- Dígnus and indígnus sometimes take the genitive in colloquial usage and in poetry:
SECTION: #419. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may be put in the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an action. This construction is called the Ablative Absolute:
NOTE.--The ablative absolute is an adverbial modifier of the predicate. It is, however, not grammatically dependent on any word in the sentence: hence its name absolute ( absolútus, i.e. free or unconnected). A substantive in the ablative absolute very seldom denotes a person or thing elsewhere mentioned in the same clause. An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the participle in the Ablative Absolute construction:
A phrase or clause, used substantively, sometimes occurs as ablative absolute with a participle or an adjective:
NOTE.--This construction is very rare except in later Latin. A participle or an adjective is sometimes used adverbially in the ablative absolute without a substantive:
SECTION: #420. The Ablative Absolute often takes the place of a Sub ordinate Clause. Thus it may replace: 1. A Temporal Clause (Sect: 541 ff.):
2. A Causal Clause (Sect: 540):
3. A Concessive Clause (Sect: 527):
4. A Conditional Clause (Sect: 521):
5. A Clause of Accompanying Circumstance:
NOTE.--As the English Nominative Absolute is far less common than the Ablative Absolute in Latin, a change of form is generally required in translation. Thus the present participle is oftenest to be rendered in English by a relative clause with when or while; and the perfect passive participle by the perfect active participle. These changes may be seen in the following example: At illí, intermissó spatió, imprúdentibus nostrís atque occupátís in múnítióne castrórum, subitó sé ex silvís éiécérunt; impetú que in eós factó quí erant in statióne pró castrís conlocátí, ácriter púgnávérunt; duábusque missís subsidió cohortibus á Caesare, cum hae ( perexiguó intermissó locé ´ spatió inter sé) cónstitissent, novó genere púgnae perterritís nostrís, per mediós audácissimé perrúpérunt séque inde incolumís recépérunt.-- CAESAR, B. G. 5.15. But they, having paused a space, while our men were unaware and busied in fortifying the camp, suddenly threw themselves out of the woods; then, making an attack upon those who were on guard in front of the camp, they fought fiercely; and, though two cohorts had been sent by Caesar as reinforcements, after these had taken their position (leaving very little space of ground between them), as our men were alarmed by the strange kind of fighting, they dashed most daringly through the midst of them and got off safe. For the Ablative with Prepositions, see Sect: 220. 1 These are abútor, deútor (very rare), défungor, defruor, perfruor, perfungor. 2 This construction is properly an instrumental one, in which opus and úsus mean work and service, and the ablative expresses that with which the work is performed or the service rendered. The noun úsus follows the analogy of the verb útor, and the ablative with opus est appears to be an extension of that with úsus est. 3 In this phrase the is not the definite article but a pronominal adverb, being the Anglo- Saxon thy, the instrumental case of the pronoun thaet, that. This pronoun is used both as relative (by which, by how much) and as demonstrative (by that, by so much). Thus the ... the corresponds exactly to quó ... eó. 4 It was originally instrumental and appears to have developed from accompaniment (Sect: 413) and manner (Sect: 412). 5 The Ablative Absolute is perhaps of instrumental origin. It is, however, sometimes explained as an outgrowth of the locative, and in any event certain locative constructions (of place and time) must have contributed to its development. 6 The present participle of esse, wanting in Latin (Sect: 170. b), is used in Sanskrit and Greek as in English. Ablative of Place SECTION: #421. The Locative Case was originally used (literally) to denote the place where and (figuratively) to denote the time when (a development from the idea of place). But this case was preserved only in names of towns and a few other words, and the place where is usually denoted by the Ablative. In this construction the Ablative was no doubt, used at first without a preposition, but afterwards it became associated in most instances with the preposition in. SECTION: #422. In expressions of Time and Place the Latin shows a variety of idiomatic constructions (Ablative, Accusative, and Locative), which are systematically treated in Sect: 423 ff. Time SECTION: #423. Time when, or within which, is expressed by the Ablative; time how long by the Accusative. 1. Ablative:
2. Accusative:
NOTE.--The Ablative of Time is locative in its origin (Sect: 421); the Accusative is the same as that of the extent of space (Sect: 425). SECTION: #424. Special constructions of time are the following: The Ablative of time within which sometimes takes in, and the Accusative of time how long per, for greater precision:
Duration of time is occasionally expressed by the Ablative:
NOTE.--In this use the period of time is regarded as that within which the act is done, and it is only implied that the act lasted through the period. Cf. inter annós quattuordecim ( B. G. 1.36), for fourteen years. Time during which or within which may be expressed by the Accusative or Ablative of a noun in the singular, with an ordinal numeral:
Many expressions have in Latin the construction of time when where in English the main idea is rather of place:
In many idiomatic expressions of time, the Accusative with ad, in, or sub is used. Such are the following:
Distance of time before or after anything is variously expressed:
In Dates the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or the ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposition; and the phrase itself may also be governed by a preposition. The year is expressed by the names of the consuls in the ablative absolute, usually without a conjunction (Sect: 419. a):
For the Roman Calendar, see Sect: 631. Extent of Space SECTION: #425. Extent of Space is expressed by the Accusative:
NOTE.--This Accusative denotes the object through or over which the action takes place and is kindred with the Accusative of the End of Motion (Sect: 427. 2). Measure is often expressed by the Genitive of Quality (Sect: 345. b):
Distance when considered as extent of space is put in the Accusative; when considered as degree of difference, in the Ablative (Sect: 414):
Relations of Place SECTION: #426. Relations of Placeare expressed as follows: 1. The place from which, by the Ablative with ab, dé, or ex. 2. The place to which (or end of motion), by the Accusative with <
3. The place where, by the Ablative with in (Locative Ablative). Examples are: 1. Place from which:
2. Place to which (end of motion):
3. Place where:
SECTION: #427. With names of towns and small islands, and with domus and rús, the Relations of Place are expressed as follows: 1. The place from which, by the Ablative without a preposition. 2. The place to which, by the Accusative without a preposition. 3. The place where, by the Locative. Examples are: 1. Place from which:
2. Place to which:
3. Place where (or at which): Rómae, at Rome ( Róma). Athénís, at Athens ( Athénae). Rhodí, at Rhodes ( Rhodus). Lánuví, at Lanuvium. Samí, at Samos. Cyprí, at Cyprus. Tíburí or Tíbure, at Tibur. Cúribus, at Cures. Philippís, at Philippi. Capreís, at Capri ( Capreae). domí (rarely domuí), at home. rúrí, in the country. The Locative Case is also preserved in the following nouns, which are used (like names of towns) without a preposition: bellí, mílitiae (in contrast to domí), abroad, in military service. humí, on the ground. vesperí (-e), in the evening. forís, out of doors. animí (see Sect: 358). herí (-e), yesterday. temperí, betimes.
SECTION: #428. Special uses of place from which, to which, and where are the following: With names of towns and small islands ab is often used to denote from the vicinity of, and ad to denote towards, to the neighborhood of:
The general words urbs, oppidum, ínsula require a preposition to express the place from which, to which, or where: ab ( ex) urbe, from the city. in urbe, in the city. ad urbem, to the city. Rómae in urbe, in the city of Rome. in urbem, into the city. Rómá ex urbe, from the city of Rome. ad urbem Rómam ( Rómam ad urbem), to the city of Rome. With the name of a country, ad denotes to the borders; in with the accusative, into the country itself. Similarly ab denotes away from the outside; ex, out of the interior. Thus ad Italiam pervénit would mean he came to the frontier, regardless of the destination; in Italiam, he went to Italy, i.e. to a place within it, to Rome, for instance. So ab I taliá profectus est would mean he came away from the frontier, regardless of the original starting-point; ex I taliá, he came from Italy, from within, as from Rome, for instance. With all names of places at, meaning near (not in), is expressed by ad or apud with the accusative.
ad forís, at the doors. ad iánuam, at the door. NOTE 1.--In the neighborhood of may be expressed by circá with the accusative; among, by apud with the accusative: apud Graecós, among the Greeks. apud mé, at my house. apud Solénsís (Leg. 2.41), at Soli. circá Capuam, round about Capua. N OTE 2.--In citing an author, apud is regularly used; in citing a particular work, in. Thus,-- apud Xenophóntem, in Xenophon; but, in Xenophóntis Oeconomicó, in Xenophon's è'conomicus Large islands, and all places when thought of as a territory and not as a locality, are treated like names of countries:
The Ablative without a preposition is used to denote the place from which in certain idiomatic expressions:
The poets and later writers often omit the preposition with the place from which or to which when it would be required in classical prose:
In poetry the place to which is often expressed by the Dative, occasionally also in later prose:
The preposition is not used with the supine in -um (Sect: 509) and in the following old phrases: exsequiás íre, to go to the funeral. ínfitiás íre, to resort to denial. pessum íre, to go to ruin. pessum dare, to ruin (cf. perdó).
When two or more names of place are used with a verb of motion, each must be under its own construction:
NOTE.--The accusative with or without a preposition is often used in Latin when motion to a place is implied but not expressed in English (see k, N.). Domum denoting the place to which, and the locative domí, may be modified by a possessive pronoun or a genitive:
NOTE.--At times when thus modified, and regularly when otherwise modified, in domum or in domó is used:
SECTION: #429. The place where is denoted by the Ablative without a preposition in the following instances: 1. Often in indefinite words, such as locó, parte, etc.:
2. Frequently with nouns which are qualified by adjectives (regularly when tótus is used):
3. In many idiomatic expressions which have lost the idea of place:
4. Freely in poetry:
The way by which is put in the Ablative without a preposition:
NOTE.--In this use the way by which is conceived as the means of passage. Position is frequently expressed by the Ablative with ab (rarely ex), properly meaning from:
SECTION: #430. Verbs of placing, though implying motion, take the construction of the place where: Such are pónó, locó, collocó, statuó, cónstituó, etc.:
NOTE.--Compounds of pónó take various constructions (see the Lexicon under each word). SECTION: #431. Several verbs are followed by the Ablative. These are acquiéscó, délector, laetor, gaudeó, glórior, nítor, stó, maneó, fídó, cónfídó, cónsistó, contineor.
NOTE.--The ablative with these verbs sometimes takes the preposition in (but fídó in is late), and the ablative with them is probably locative. Thus,--in quibus causa nítitur (Cael. 25) , on whom the case depends. With several of these verbs the neuter Accusative of pronouns is often found. For fídó and cónfídó with the Dative, see Sect: 367. The verbals frétus, contentus, and laetus take the Locative Ablative:
NOTE.--So intentus, rarely: as,-- aliquó negótió intentus ( Sall. Cat. 2), intent on some occupation. 1 Originally all these relations were expressed by the cases alone. The accusative, in one of its oldest functions, denoted the end of motion; the ablative, in its proper meaning of separation, denoted the place from which, and, in its locative function, the place where. The prepositions, originally adverbs, were afterwards added to define more exactly the direction of motion (as in to usward, toward us), and by long association became indispensable except as indicated below. 2 The Locative has in the singular of the first and second declensions the same form as the Genitive, in the plural and in the third declension the same form as the Dative or Ablative. (See p. 34, footnote.) 3 The English home in this construction is, like domum, an old accusative of the end of motion. 4 Apparently the direction whence the sensuous impression comes. 5 For a list of Prepositions with their ordinary uses, see Sect: 221. Adverbs and Prepositions SECTION: #432. Certain Adverbs and Adjectives are sometimes used as Prepositions: The adverbs prídié, postrídié, propius, proximé, less frequently the adjectives propior and proximus, may be followed by the Accusative:
NOTE.-- Prídié and postrídié take also the Genitive (Sect: 359. b). Propior, propius, proximus, and proximé, take also the Dative, or the Ablative with ab:
è sque sometimes takes the Accusative, but úsque ad is much more common:
The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may be used as prepositions and take the Ablative:
NOTE.--But simul regularly takes cum; procul is usually followed by ab in classic writers; and the use of palam as a preposition is comparatively late. The adverb clam is found in early Latin with the Accusative, also once with the Genitive and once in classical Latin with the Ablative:
SECTION: #433. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Adverbs: 1. Ante and post in relations of time:
2. Adversus, circiter, prope:
3. á or ab, off, in expressions of distance, with the Ablative of Degree of Difference (Sect: 414):
4. In general, prepositions ending in -á:
SECTION: #434. Some Prepositions and Adverbs which imply comparison are followed, like comparatives, by quam, which may be separated by several words, or even clauses. Such words are ante, prius, post, posteá, prídié, postrídié; also magis and prae in compounds:
NOTE.--The ablative of time is sometimes followed by quam in the same way (Sect: 424. f): as,--octávó ménse quam (Liv. 21.15) , within eight months after, etc. SECTION: #435. The following Prepositions sometimes come after their nouns: ad, citrá, circum, contrá, dé, é ( ex), inter, iúxtá, penes, propter, ultrá; so regularly tenus and versus, and occasionally others:
SECTION: #436. The Syntax of the Verb relates chiefly to the use of the Moods (which express the manner in which the action is conceived) and the Tenses (which express the time of the action). There is no difference in origin between mood and tense; and hence the uses of mood and tense frequently cross each other. Thus the tenses sometimes have modal significations (compare indicative in apodosis, Sect: 517. c; future for imperative, Sect: 449. b); and the moods sometimes express time (compare subjunctive in future conditions, Sect: 516. b, and notice the want of a future subjunctive). The parent language had, besides the Imperative mood, two or more forms with modal signification. Of these, the Subjunctive appears with two sets of terminations, -á-m, -á-s, in the present tense ( moneam, dícam), and -é-m, - é-s, in the present ( amem) or other tenses ( essem, díxissem). The Optative was formed by ié-, í-, with the present stem (sim, duim) or the perfect ( díxerim). (See details in Sect: Sect: 168, 169.) Each mood has two general classes or ranges of meaning. The uses of the Subjunctive may all be classed under the general ideas of will or desire and of action vividly conceived; and the uses of the Optative under the general ideas of wish and of action vaguely conceived. It must not be supposed, however, that in any given construction either the subjunctive or the optative was deliberately used because it denoted conception or possibility. On the contrary, each construction has had its own line of development from more tangible and literal forms of thought to more vague and ideal; and by this process the mood used came to have in each case a special meaning, which was afterwards habitually associated with it in that construction. Similar developments have taken place in English. Thus, the expression I would do this has become equivalent to a mild command, while by analysis it is seen to be the apodosis of a present condition contrary to fact (Sect: 517): if I were you, etc. By further analysis, I would do is seen to have meant, originally, I should have wished (or I did wish) to do. In Latin, the original Subjunctive and the Optative became confounded in meaning and in form, and were merged in the Subjunctive, at first in the present tense. Then new tense-forms of the subjunctive were formed,and to these the original as well as the derived meanings of both moods became attached (see Sect: 438). All the independent uses of the Latin subjunctive are thus to be accounted for. The dependent uses of the subjunctive have arisen from the employment of some independent subjunctive construction in connection with a main statement. Most frequently the main statement is prefixed to a sentence containing a subjunctive, as a more complete expression of a complex idea (Sect: 268). Thus a question implying a general negative ( quín rogem? why should n't I ask?) might have the general negative expressed in a prefixed statement ( núlla causa est, there is no reason); or abeat, let him go away, may be expanded into sine abeat. When such a combination comes into habitual use, the original meaning of the subjunctive partially or wholly disappears and a new meaning arises by implication. Thus, in mísit légátós quí dícerent, he sent ambassadors to say (i.e. who should say), the original hortatory sense of the subjunctive is partially lost, and the mood becomes in part an expression of purpose. Similar processes may be seen in the growth of Apodosis. Thus, tolle hanc opíniónem, lúctum sustuleris, remove this notion, you will have done away with grief (i.e. if you remove, etc.). The Infinitive is originally a verbal noun (Sect: 451), modifying a verb like other nouns: voló vidére, lit. "I wish for-seeing’Äù: compare English "what went ye out for to see?"But in Latin it has been surprisingly developed, so as to have forms for tense, and some proper modal characteristics, and to be used as a substitute for finite moods. The other noun and adjective forms of the verb have been developed in various ways, which are treated under their respective heads below. The proper Verbal Constructions may be thus classified: I. Indicative: Direct Assertion or Question (Sect: 437). II. Subjunctive: a. Independent Uses: 1. Exhortation or Command (Sect: 439). 2. Concession (Sect: 440). 3. Wish (Sect: 441). 4. Question of Doubt etc. (Sect: 444). 5. Possibility or Contingency (Sect: 446). b. Dependent Uses: 1. Conditions Future (less vivid) (Sect: 516. b, c). Contrary to Fact (Sect: 517). 2. Purpose (with ut, né) (Sect: 531). 3. Characteristic (Relative Clause) (Sect: 535). 4. Result (with ut, ut nón) (Sect: 537). 5. Time (with cum) (Sect: 546). 6. Intermediate (Indirect Discourse) (Sect: 592). 7. Indirect Questions or Commands (Sect: 574, 588). III. Imperative: 1. Direct Commands (often Subjunctive) (Sect: 448). 2. Statutes, Laws, and Wills (Sect: 449. 2). 3. Prohibitions (early or poetic use) (Sect: 450. a). IV. Infinitive: a. Subject of esse and Impersonal Verbs (Sect: 452, 454). b. Objective Constructions: 1. Complementary Infinitive (Sect: 456). 2. Indirect Discourse (with Subject Accusative) (Sect: 580). c. Idiomatic Uses: 1. Purpose (poetic or Greek use) (Sect: 460). 2. Exclamation (with Subject Accusative) (Sect: 462). 3. Historical Infinitive (Sect: 463). MOODS For the signification of the tense-endings, see Sect: 168, 169. SECTION: #437. The Indicative is the mood of direct assertions or questions when there is no modification of the verbal idea except that of time. The Indicative is sometimes used where the English idiom would suggest the Subjunctive:
NOTE.--Substitutes for the Indicative are (1) the Historical Infinitive (Sect: 463), and (2) the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (Sect: 580). For the Indicative in Conditions, see Sect: 515, 516; for the Indicative in implied Commands, see Sect: 449. b. 1 For the signification of the tense-endings, see Sect: 168, 169. SECTION: #438. The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal idea with some modificationsuch as is expressed in English by auxiliaries, by the infinitive, or by the rare subjunctive (Sect: 157. b). The Subjunctive is used independently to express:/p>
1. An Exhortation or Command (Hortatory Subjunctive: Sect: 439). 2. A Concession (Concessive Subjunctive: Sect: 440). 3. A Wish (Optative Subjunctive: Sect: 441). 4. A Question of Doubt etc. (Deliberative Subjunctive: Sect: 444). 5. A Possibility or Contingency (Potential Subjunctive: Sect: 446). For the special idiomatic uses of the Subjunctive in Apodosis, see Sect: 514. The Subjunctive is used in dependent clauses to express:/p>
1. Condition: future or contrary to fact (Sect: 516. b, c, 517). 2. Purpose (Final, Sect: 531). 3. Characteristic (Sect: 535). 4. Result (Consecutive, Sect: 537). 5. Time (Temporal, Sect: 546). 6. Indirect Question (Sect: 574). The Subjunctive is also used with Conditional Particles of Comparison (Sect: 524), and in subordinate clauses in the Indirect Discourse (Sect: 580). .Hortatory Subjunctive SECTION: #439. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense to express an exhortation or a command. The negative is né.
NOTE 1.--The hortatory subjunctive occurs rarely in the perfect (except in prohibitions: Sect: 450): as,-- Epicúrus hóc víderit (Acad. 2.19) , let Epicurus look to this. NOTE 2.--The term hortatory subjunctive is sometimes restricted to the first person plural, the second and third persons being designated as the jussive subjunctive; but the constructions are substantially identical. NOTE 3.--Once in Cicero and occasionally in the poets and later writers the negative with the hortatory subjunctive is nón: as,--á légibus nón recédámus (Clu. 155) , let us not abandon the laws. The Second Person of the hortatory subjunctive is used only of an indefinite subject, except in prohibitions, in early Latin, and in poetry:
For Negative Commands (prohibitions), see Sect: 450. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunctive denote an unfulfilled obligation in past time:
NOTE 1.--In this construction the Pluperfect usually differs from the Imperfect only in more clearly representing the time for action as momentary or as past. NOTE 2.--This use of the subjunctive is carefully to be distinguished from the potential use (Sect: 446). The difference is indicated by the translation, should or ought (not would or might). SECTION: #440. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used to express a concession.The Present is used for present time, the Perfect for past. The negative is né.
NOTE.--The concessive subjunctive with quamvís and licet is originally hortatory ( Sect: 527. a, b). For other methods of expressing Concession, see Sect: 527. For the Hortatory Subjunctive denoting a Proviso, see Sect: 528. a. Optative Subjunctive SECTION: #441. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a Wish. The present tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as unaccomplished in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in past time. The negative is né:
The perfect subjunctive in a wish is archaic:
SECTION: #442. The Optative Subjunctive is often preceded by the particle utinam; so regularly in the imperfect and pluperfect:
NOTE.-- Utinam nón is occasionally used instead of utinam né: as,-- utinam susceptus nón essem (Att. 9.9.3) , would that I had not been born. In poetry and old Latin utí or ut often introduces the optative subjunctive; and in poetry sí or ó sí with the subjunctive sometimes expresses a wish:
NOTE 1.--The subjunctive with utí ( ut) or utinam was originally deliberative, meaning how may I, etc. (Sect: 444). The subjunctive with sí or ó sí is a protasis (Sect: 512. a), the apodosis not being expressed. NOTE 2.--The subjunctive of wish without a particle is seldom found in the imperfect or pluperfect except by sequence of tenses in Indirect Discourse (Sect: 585): as,-- ac veneráta Cerés, ita culmó surgeret altó ( Hor. S. 2.2.124), and Ceres worshipped [with libations] that so she might rise with tall stalk. [I<
Velim and vellem, and their compounds, with a subjunctive or infinitive, are often equivalent to an optative subjunctive:
NOTE.-- Velim etc., in this use, are either potential subjunctives, or apodoses with the protasis omitted (Sect: 447. 1. N.). The thing wished may be regarded as a substantive clause used as object of the verb of wishing (Sect: 565. N.1). Deliberative Subjunctive SECTION: #443. The Subjunctive was used in sentences of interrogative form, at first when the speaker wished information in regard to the will or desire of the person addressed. The mood was therefore hortatory in origin. But such questions when addressed by the speaker to himself, as if asking his own advice, become deliberative or, not infrequently, merely exclamatory. In such cases the mood often approaches the meaning of the Potential (see Sect: 445). In these uses the subjunctive is often called Deliberative or Dubitative. SECTION: #444. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doubt, indignation, or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done. The negative is nón.
NOTE.--The hortatory origin of some of these questions is obvious. Thus,-- quid faciámus?= faciámus [ aliquid], quid? let us do--what? (Compare the expanded form quid vís faciámus? what do you wish us to do?) Once established, it was readily transferred to the past: quid faciam? what AM I to do? quid facerem? what WAS I to do? Questions implying impossibility, however, cannot be distinguished from Apodosis (cf. Sect: 517). In many cases the question has become a mere exclamation, rejecting a suggested possibility:
NOTE.--The indicative is sometimes used in deliberative questions: as,-- quid agó, what am I to do? Potential Subjunctive SECTION: #445. Of the two principal uses of the Subjunctive in independent sentences (cf. Sect: 436), the second, or Potential Subjunctive,is found in a variety of sentence-forms having as their common element the fact that the mood represents the action as merely conceived or possible, not as desired (hortatory, optative) or real (indicative). Some of these uses are very old and may go back to the Indo-European parent speech, but no satisfactory connection between the Potential and the Hortatory and Optative Subjunctive has been traced. There is no single English equivalent for the Potential Subjunctive; the mood must be rendered, according to circumstances, by the auxiliaries would, should, may, might, can, could. SECTION: #446. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action as possible or conceivable. The negative is nón. In this use the Present and the Perfect refer without distinction to the immediate future; the Imperfect (occasionally the Perfect) to past time; the Pluperfect (which is rare) to what might have happened. SECTION: #447. The Potential Subjunctive has the following uses: 1. In cautious or modest assertions in the first person singular of expressions of saying, thinking, or wishing (present or perfect):
NOTE.-- Vellem, nóllem, or mállem expressing an unfulfilled wish in present time may be classed as independent potential subjunctive or as the apodosis of an unexpressed condition (Sect: 521): as-- vellem adesset M. Antónius (Phil. 1.16) , I could wish Antony were here. 2. In the indefinite second person singular of verbs of saying, thinking, and the like (present or imperfect):
3. With other verbs, in all persons, when some word or phrase in the context implies that the action is expressed as merely possible or conceivable:
NOTE.--In this use the subjunctive may be regarded as the apodosis of an undeveloped protasis. When the conditional idea becomes clearer, it finds expression in a formal protasis, and a conditional sentence is developed. Forsitan, perhaps, regularly takes the Potential Subjunctive except in later Latin and in poetry, where the Indicative is also common:
NOTE.--The subjunctive clause with forsitan (= fors sit an) was originally an Indirect Question: it would be a chance whether, etc. Fortasse, perhaps, is regularly followed by the Indicative; sometimes, however, by the Subjunctive, but chiefly in later Latin:
NOTE.--Other expressions for perhaps are (1) forsan (chiefly poetical; construed with the indicative or the subjunctive, more commonly the indicative), fors (rare and poetical; construed with either the indicative or the subjunctive). Forsit (or fors sit) occurs once ( Hor. S. 1.6.49) and takes the subjunctive. Fortasse is sometimes followed by the infinitive with subject accusative in Plautus and Terence. Fortassis (rare; construed like fortasse) and fortasse an (very rare; construed with the subjunctive) are also found. 1 These modifications are of various kinds, each of which has had its own special development (cf. Sect: 436). The subjunctive in Latin has also many idiomatic uses (as in clauses of Result and Time) where the English does not modify the verbal idea at all, but expresses it directly. In such cases the Latin merely takes a different view of the action and has developed the construction differently from the English. 2 Many scholars regard the concessive subjunctive as a development of the Optative Subjunctive in a wish. 3 The name Potential Subjunctive is not precisely descriptive, but is fixed in grammatical usage. SECTION: #448. The Imperative is used in Commands and Entreaties:
The third person of the imperative is antiquated or poetic:
NOTE.--In prose the Hortatory Subjunctive is commonly used instead (Sect: 439). SECTION: #449. The Future Imperative is used in commands, etc., where there is a distinct reference to future time: 1. In connection with some adverb or other expression that indicates at what time in the future the action of the imperative shall take place. So especially with a future, a future perfect indicative, or (in poetry and early Latin) with a present imperative:
2. In general directions serving for all time, as Precepts, Statutes, and Wills:
The verbs sció, meminí, and habeó (in the sense of consider) regularly use the Future Imperative instead of the Present:
The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the imperative; and quín (why not?) with the Present Indicative may have the force of a command:
Instead of the simple Imperative, cúrá ut, fac ( fac ut), or velim, followed by the subjunctive (Sect: 565), is often used, especially in colloquial language:
For commands in Indirect Discourse, see Sect: 588. For the Imperative with the force of a Conditional Clause, see Sect: 521. b. Prohibition (Negative Command) SECTION: #450. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by nólí with the Infinitive, (2) by cavé with the Present Subjunctive, or (3) by né with the Perfect Subjunctive:
All three of these constructions are well established in classic prose. The first, which is the most ceremonious, occurs oftenest; the third, though not discourteous, is usually less formal and more peremptory than the others. NOTE 1.--Instead of nólí the poets sometimes use other imperatives of similar meaning (cf. Sect: 457. a):
NOTE 2.-- Cavé né is sometimes used in prohibitions; also vidé né and (colloquially) fac né: as,-- fac né quid aliud cúrés ( Fam. 16.11), see that you attend to nothing else. NOTE 3.--The present subjunctive with né and the perfect with cave are found in old writers; né with the present is common in poetry at all periods:
NOTE 4.--Other negatives sometimes take the place of né:
NOTE 5.--The regular connective, and do not, is néve. The Present Imperative with né is used in prohibitions by early writers and the poets:
The Future Imperative with né is used in prohibitions in laws and formal precepts (see Sect: 449. 2). 1 In prohibitions the subjunctive with né is hortatory; that with cav é is an object clause (cf. Sect: 450. N.2, 565. N.1). SECTION: #451. The Infinitive is properly a noun denoting the action of the verb abstractly. It differs, however, from other abstract nouns in the following points: (1) it often admits the distinction of tense; (2) it is modified by adverbs, not by adjectives; (3) it governs the same case as its verb; (4) it is limited to special constructions. The Latin Infinitive is the dative or locative case of such a nounand was originally used to denote Purpose; but it has in many constructions developed into a substitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use. In its use as a verb, the Infinitive may take a Subject Accusative (Sect: 397. e), originally the object of another verb on which the Infinitive depended. Thus iubeó té valére is literally I command you for being well (cf. substantive clauses, Sect: 562. N.). Infinitive as Noun SECTION: #452. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may be used with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Apposition with the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative. 1. As Subject:
2. In Apposition with the Subject:
3. As Predicate Nominative:
NOTE 1.--An infinitive may be used as Direct Object in connection with a Predicate Accusative (Sect: 393), or as Appositive with such Direct Object:
NOTE 2.--An Appositive or Predicate noun or adjective used with an infinitive in any of these constructions is put in the Accusative, whether the infinitive has a subject expressed or not. Thus,-- nón esse cupidum pecúnia est (Par. 51) , to be free from desires (not to be desirous) is money in hand. [No Subject Accusative.] The infinitive as subject is not common except with est and similar verbs. But sometimes, especially in poetry, it is used as the subject of verbs which are apparently more active in meaning:
SECTION: #453. Rarely the Infinitive is used exactly like the Accusative of a noun:
NOTE.--Many complementary and other constructions approach a proper accusative use of the infinitive, but their development has been different from that of the examples above. Thus,-- aváritia ... superbiam, crúdélitátem, deós neglegere, omnia vénália habére édocuit ( Sall. Cat. 10), avarice taught pride, cruelty, to neglect the gods, and to hold everything at a price. Infinitive as Apparent Subject of Impersonals SECTION: #454. The Infinitive is used as the apparent Subject with many impersonal verbs and expressions: Such are libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, vísum est, pudet, piget, necesse est, opus est, etc.:
NOTE.--This use is a development of the Complementary Infinitive (Sect: 456); but the infinitives approach the subject construction and may be con veniently regarded as the subjects of the impersonals. SECTION: #455. With impersonal verbs and expressions that take the Infinitive as an apparent subject, the personal subject of the action may be expressed:/p>
1. By a Dative, depending on the verb or verbal phrase:
2. By an Accusative expressed as the subject of the infinitive or the object of the impersonal:
NOTE.-- Libet, placet, and vísum est take the dative only; oportet, pudet, piget, and generally decet, the accusative only; licet and necesse est take either case. A predicate noun or adjective is commonly in the Accusative; but with licet regularly, and with other verbs occasionally, the Dative is used:
NOTE.--When the subject is not expressed, as being indefinite (one, anybody), a predicate noun or adjective is regularly in the accusative (cf. Sect: 452. 3. N.2): as,-- vel páce vel belló clárum fierí licet ( Sall. Cat. 3), one can become illustrious either in peace or in war Complementary Infinitive SECTION: #456. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their meaning take the Infinitive without a subject accusative. Such are verbs denoting to be able, dare, undertake, remember, forget, be accustomed, begin, continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how, fear, and the like:
NOTE.--The peculiarity of the Complementary Infinitive construction is that no Subject Accusative is in general admissible or conceivable. But some infinitives usually regarded as objects can hardly be distinguished from this construction when they have no subject expressed. Thus voló dícere and voló mé dícere mean the same thing, I wish to speak, but the latter is object-infinitive, while the former is not apparently different in origin and construction from queó dícere (complementary infinitive), and again voló eum dícere, I wish him to speak, is essentially different from either (cf. Sect: 563. b). SECTION: #457. Many verbs take either a Subjunctive Clause or a Complementary Infinitive, without difference of meaning. Such are verbs signifying willingness, necessity, propriety, resolve, command, prohibition, effort, and the like (cf. Sect: 563):
NOTE 1.--For the infinitive with subject accusative used with some of these verbs instead of a complementary infinitive, see Sect: 563. NOTE 2.--Some verbs of these classes never take the subjunctive, but are identical in meaning with others which do:
In poetry and later writers many verbs may have the infinitive, after the analogy of verbs of more literal meaning that take it in prose:
SECTION: #458. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after a complementary infinitive takes the case of the subject of the main verb:
Infinitive with Subject Accusative SECTION: #459. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used with verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving (Indirect Discourse, Sect: 579):
Infinitive of Purpose SECTION: #460. In a few cases the Infinitive retains its original meaning of Purpose. The infinitive is used in isolated passages instead of a subjunctive clause after habeó, dó, ministró:
Parátus, suétus, and their compounds, and a few other participles (used as adjectives), take the infinitive like the verbs from which they come:
NOTE.--In prose these words more commonly take the Gerund or Gerundive construction (Sect: 503 ff.) either in the genitive, the dative, or the accusative with ad:
The poets and early writers often use the infinitive to express purpose when there is no analogy with any prose construction:
NOTE.--So rarely in prose writers of the classic period. For the Infinitive used instead of a Substantive Clause of Purpose, see Sect: 457. For tempus est abíre, see Sect: 504. N. 2. Peculiar Infinitives SECTION: #461. Many Adjectives take the Infinitive in poetry, following a Greek idiom:
Rarely in poetry the infinitive is used to express result:
NOTE.--These poetic constructions were originally regular and belong to the Infinitive as a noun in the Dative or Locative case (Sect: 451). They had been supplanted, however, by other more formal constructions, and were afterwards restored in part through Greek influence. The infinitive occasionally occurs as a pure noun limited by a demonstrative, a possessive, or some other adjective:
Exclamatory Infinitive SECTION: #462. The Infinitive, with Subject Accusative,may be used in Exclamations (cf. Sect: 397. d):
NOTE 1.--The interrogative particle - ne is often attached to the emphatic word (as in the second example). NOTE 2.--The Present and the Perfect Infinitive are used in this construction with their ordinary distinction of time (Sect: 486). A subjunctive clause, with or without ut, is often used elliptically in exclamatory questions. The question may be introduced by the interrogative - ne:
NOTE.--The Infinitive in exclamations usually refers to something actually occurring; the Subjunctive, to something contemplated. Historical Infinitive SECTION: #463. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the Nominative:
NOTE.--This construction is not strictly historical, but rather descriptive, and is never used to state a mere historical fact. It is rarely found in subordinate clauses. Though occurring in most of the writers of all periods, it is most frequent in the historians Sallust, Livy, Tacitus. It does not occur in Suetonius. SECTION: #464. The number of possible Tenses is very great. For in each of the three times, Present, Past, and Future, an action may be represented as going on, completed, or beginning; as habitual or isolated; as defined in time or indefinite (aoristic); as determined with reference to the time of the speaker, or as not itself so determined but as relative to some time which is determined; and the past and future times may be near or remote. Thus a scheme of thirty or more tenses might be devised. But, in the development of forms, which always takes place gradually, no language finds occasion for more than a small part of these. The most obvious distinctions, according to our habits of thought, appear in the following scheme: 1. Definite (fixing the time of the action) 2. Indefinite INOOMPLETE---- ---COMPLETE------- NARRATIVE Present: a. I am writing.---- d. I have written.---- g. I write. Past: b. I was writing.---- e. I had written. ----h. I wrote. Future: c. I shall be writing. ----f. I shall have written. ----i. I shall write. Most languages disregard some of these distinctions, and some make other distinctions not here given. The Indo-European parent speech had a Present tense to express a and g, a Perfect to express d, an Aorist to express h, a Future to express c and i, and an Imperfect to express b. The Latin, however, confounded the Perfect and Aorist in a single form (the Perfect scrípsí), thus losing all distinction of form between d and h, and probably in a great degree the distinction of meaning. The nature of this confusion may be seen by comparing díxí, dicáví, and didicí (all Perfects derived from the same root, DIC), with edeixa, Skr. adiksham, dedeicha, Skr. dides'a. Latin also developed two new forms, those for e ( scrípseram) and f ( scrípseró), and thus possessed six tenses, as seen in Sect: 154. c. The lines between these six tenses in Latin are not hard and fast, nor are they precisely the same that we draw in English. Thus in many verbs the form corresponding to I have written (d) is used for those corresponding to I am writing (a) and I write (g) in a slightly different sense, and the form corresponding to I had written (e) is used in like manner for that corresponding to I was writing (b). Again, the Latin often uses the form for I shall have written (f) instead of that for I shall write (i). Thus, nóví, I have learned, is used for I know; cónstiterat, he had taken his position, for he stood; cógnóveró, I shall have learned, for I shall be aware. In general a writer may take his own point of view. 1 The ending -e( amáre, monére, regere, audíre) was apparently locative, the ending - í ( amárí, monérí, regí, audírí) apparently dative; but this difference of case had no significance for Latin syntax. The general Latin restriction of the é ´-infinitives to the passive was not a primitive distinction, but grew up in the course of time. 2 In these constructions the abstract idea expressed by the infinitive is represented as having some quality or belonging to some thing. 3 This construction is elliptical; that is, the thought is quoted in Indirect Discourse, though no verb of saying etc. is expressed or even, perhaps, implied (compare the French dire que). Passages like hancine ego ad rem nátam miseram mé memorábó? (Plaut. Rud. 188) point to the origin of the construction. INCOMPLETE ACTION: .PRESENT TENSE SECTION: #465. The Present Tense denotes an action or state (1) as now taking place or existing, and so (2) as incomplete in present time, or (3) as indefinite, referring to no particular time, but denoting a general truth:
NOTE.--The present of a general truth is sometimes called the Gnomic Present. The present is regularly used in quoting writers whose works are extant:
Present with iam diú etc. SECTION: #466. The Present with expressions of duration of time (especially iam diú, iam dúdum) denotes an action continuing in the present, but begun in the past (cf. Sect: 471. b). In this use the present is commonly to be rendered by the perfect in English:
NOTE 1.--The difference in the two idioms is that the English states the beginning and leaves the continuance to be inferred, while the Latin states the continuance and leaves the beginning to be inferred. Compare he has long suffered (and still suffers) with he still suffers (and has suffered long). NOTE 2.--Similarly the Present Imperative with iam dúdum indicates that the action commanded ought to have been done or was wished for long ago (cf. the Perfect Imperative in Greek): as,-- iam dúdum súmite poenás (Aen. 2.103) , exact the penalty long delayed. Conative Present SECTION: #467. The Present sometimes denotes an action attempted or begun in present time, but never completed at all (Conative Present, cf. Sect: 471. c):
Present for Future SECTION: #468. The Present, especially in colloquial language and poetry, is often used for the Future:
NOTE.-- Eó and its compounds are especially frequent in this use (cf. where are you going to-morrow? and the Greek eimi in a future sense). Verbs of necessity, possibility, wish, and the like (as possum, voló, etc.) also have reference to the future. For other uses of the Present in a future sense, see under Conditions (Sect: 516. a. N.), antequam and priusquam (Sect: 551. c), dum (Sect: 553. N. 2), and Sect: 444. a. N. Historical Present SECTION: #469. The Present in lively narrative is often used for the Historical Perfect:
NOTE.--This usage, common in all languages, comes from imagining past events as going on before our eyes ( repraesentátió, Sect: 585. b. N.). For the Present Indicative with dum, while, see Sect: 556. The present may be used for the perfect in a summary enumeration of past events (Annalistic Present):
SECTION: #470. The Imperfect denotes an action or a state as continued or repeated in past time:
NOTE.--The Imperfect is a descriptive tense and denotes an action conceived as in progress or a state of things as actually observed. Hence in many verbs it does not differ in meaning from the Perfect. Thus réx erat and réx fuit may often be used indifferently; but the former describes the condition while the latter only states it. The English is less exact in distinguishing these two modes of statement. Hence the Latin Imperfect is often translated by the English Preterite:
SECTION: #471. The Imperfect represents a present tense transferred to past time. Hence all the meanings which the Present has derived from the continuance of the action belong also to the Imperfect in reference to past time. The Imperfect is used in descriptions:
With iam diú, iam dúdum, and other expressions of duration of time, the Imperfect denotes an action continuing in the past but begun at some previous time (cf. Sect: 466). In this construction the Imperfect is rendered by the English Pluperfect:
The Imperfect sometimes denotes an action as begun ( Inceptive Imperfect), or as attempted or only intended (Conative Imperfect; cf Sect: 467):
NOTE.--To this head may be referred the imperfect with iam, denoting the beginning of an action or state: as,-- iam que arva tenébant ultima (Aen. 6.477) , and now they were just getting to the farthest fields. The Imperfect is sometimes used to express a surprise at the resent discovery of a fact already existing:
The Imperfect is often used in dialogue by the comic poets where later writers would employ the Perfect:
NOTE.--So, in conversation the imperfect of verbs of saying (cf. as I was a-saying) is common in classic prose:
The Imperfect with negative words often has the force of the English auxiliary could or would:
For the Epistolary Imperfect, see Sect: 479; for the Imperfect Indicative in apodosis contrary to fa<
SECTION: #472. The Future denotes an action or state that will occur hereafter. The Future may have the force of an Imperative (Sect: 449. b). The Future is often required in a subordinate clause in Latin where in English futurity is sufficiently expressed by the main clause:
NOTE.--But the Present is common in future protases (Sect: 516. a N.). Perfect Definite and Historical Perfect SECTION: #473. The Perfect denotes an action either as now completed (Perfect Definite), or as having taken place at some undefined point of past time (Historical or Aoristic Perfect). The Perfect Definite corresponds in general to the English Perfect with have; the Historical Perfect to the English Preterite (or Past):
NOTE.--The distinction between these two uses is represented by two forms in most other Indo-European languages, but was almost if not wholly lost to the minds of the Romans. It must be noticed, however, on account of the marked distinction in English and also because of certain differences in the sequence of tenses. The Indefinite Present, denoting a customary action or a general truth (Sect: 465), often has the Perfect in a subordinate clause referring to time antecedent to that of the main clause:
NOTE.--This use of the perfect is especially common in the protasis of General Conditions in present time (Sect: 518. b). SECTION: #474. The Perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that a thing or condition of things that once existed no longer exists:
Special Uses of the Perfect SECTION: #475. The Perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, especially with negatives (Gnomic Perfect):
NOTE.--The gnomic perfect strictly refers to past time; but its use implies that something which never did happen in any known case never does happen, and never will (cf. the English "Faint heart never won fair lady’Äù); or, without a negative that what has once happened will always happen under similar circumstances. The Perfect is often used in expressions containing or implying a negation, where in affirmation the Imperfect would be preferred:
SECTION: #476. The completed tenses of some verbs are equivalent to the incomplete tenses of verbs of kindred meaning. Such are the preteritive verbs ódí, I hate; meminí, I remember; nóví, I know; cónsuéví, I am accustomed,with others used preteritively, as vénerat (= aderat, he was at hand, etc.), cónstitérunt, they stand firm (have taken their stand), and many inceptives (see Sect: 263. 1):
NOTE.--Many other verbs are occasionally so used: as,-- dum oculós certámen áverterat (Liv. 32.24) , while the contest had turned their eyes (kept them turned). [Here áverterat= tenébat.] SECTION: #477. The Pluperfect is used (1) to denote an action or state completed in past time; or (2) sometimes to denote an action in indefinite time, but prior to some past time referred to:
For the Epistolary Pluperfect, see Sect: 479. SECTION: #478. The Future Perfect denotes an action as completed in the future:
NOTE.--Latin is far more exact than English in distinguishing between mere future action and action completed in the future. Hence the Future Perfect is much commoner in Latin than in English. It may even be used instead of the Future, from the fondness of the Romans for representing an action as completed:
SECTION: #479. In Letters, the Perfect Historical or the Imperfect may be used for the present, and the Pluperfect for any past tense, as if the letter were dated at the time it is supposed to be received:
NOTE.--In this use these tenses are called the Epistolary Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect. The epistolary tenses are not employed with any uniformity, but only when attention is particularly directed to the time of writing (so especially scríbébam, dabam, etc.). 1 Cf. détestor, reminíscor, sció, soleó. SECTION: #480. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Independent Clauses denote time in relation to the time of the speaker. The Present always refers to future (or indefinite) time, the Imperfect to either past or present, the Perfect to either future or past, the Pluperfect always to past. SECTION: #481. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses were habitually used in certain fixed connections with the tenses of the main verb. These connections were determined by the time of the main verb and the time of the dependent verb together. They are known, collectively, as the Sequence of Tenses. NOTE.--The so-called Sequence of Tenses is not a mechanical law. Each tense of the subjunctive in dependent clauses (as in independent) originally denoted its own time in relation to the time of the speaker, though less definitely than the corresponding tenses of the indicative. Gradually, however, as the complex sentence was more strongly felt as a unit, certain types in which the tenses of the dependent clause seemed to accord with those of the main clause were almost unconsciously regarded as regular, and others, in which there was no such agreement, as exceptional. Thus a pretty definite system of correspondences grew up, which is codified in the rules for the Sequence of Tenses. These, however, are by no means rigid. They do not apply with equal stringency to all dependent constructions, and they were frequently disregarded, not only when their strict observance would have obscured the sense, but for the sake of emphasis and variety, or merely from carelessness. SECTION: #482. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses follow special rules for the Sequence of Tenses. With reference to these rules all tenses when used in independent clauses are divided into two classes,--Primary and Secondary. 1. PRIMARY.--The Primary Tenses include all forms that express present or future time. These are the Present, Future, and Future Perfect Indicative, the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the Present and Future Imperative. 2. SECONDARY.--The Secondary Tenses include all forms that refer to past time. These are the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect Indicative, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the Historical Infinitive. NOTE.--To these may be added certain forms less commonly used in independent clauses: (1) Primary: Present Infinitive in Exclamations; (2) Secondary: Perfect Infinitive in Exclamations (see Sect: 462, 485. a N.). The Perfect Definite is sometimes treated as primary (see Sect: 485. a). For the Historical Present, see Sect: 485. e; for the Imperfect Subjunctive in Apodosis, see Sect: 485. h. SECTION: #483. The following is the general rule for the Sequence of Tenses: In complex sentences a Primary tense in the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect in the dependent clause, and a Secondary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect: .PRIMARY TENSES rogó, I ask, am asking quid faciás, what you are doing. rogábó, I shall ask quid féceris, what you did, were doing, have done, have been doing. rogáví (sometimes), I have asked rogáveró, I shall have asked quid factúrus sís, what you will do. scríbit, he writes ut nós moneat, to warn us. scríbet, he will write scrí be ( scríbitó), write ut nós moneás, to warn us. scríbit, he writes quasi oblítus sit, as if he had forgotten. .SECONDARY TENSES rogábam, I asked, was asking quid facerés, what you were doing. rogáví, I asked, have asked quid fécissés, what you had done, had been doing. rogáveram, I had asked quid factúrus essés, what you would do. scrípsit, he wrote ut nós monéret, to warn us. scrípsit, he wrote quasi oblítus esset, as if he had forgotten. SECTION: #484. In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, observe:/p>
(1) Whether the main verb is (a) primary or (b) secondary. (2) Whether the dependent verb is to denote completed action (i.e. past with reference to the main verb) or incomplete action (i.e. present or future with reference to the main verb). Then:/p>
If the leading verb is primary, the dependent verb must be in the Present if it denotes incomplete action, in the Perfect if it denotes completed action. If the leading verb is secondary, the dependent verb must be in the Imperfect if it denotes incomplete action, in the Pluperfect if it denotes completed action:
Notice that the Future Perfect denotes action completed (at the time referred to), and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the Perfect or Pluperfect:
SECTION: #485. In the Sequence of Tenses the following special points are to be noted: The Perfect Indicative is ordinarily a secondary tense, but allows the primary sequence when the present time is clearly in the writer's mind:
NOTE.--The Perfect Infinitive in exclamations follows the same rule:
After a primary tense the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly used to denote any past action. This the Perfect Subjunctive may represent:/p>
1. A Perfect Definite:
2. A Perfect Historical:
3. An Imperfect:
NOTE.--Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, not only a Perfect Definite or a Perfect Historical of a direct statement or question, but an Imperfect as well. This comes from the want of any special tense of the subjunctive for continued past action after a primary tense. Thus, míror quid fécerit may mean (1) I wonder what he has done, (2) I wonder what he did (hist. perf.), or (3) I wonder what he was doing. In clauses of Result, the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly (the Present rarely) used after secondary tenses:
NOTE 1.--This construction emphasizes the result; the regular sequence of tenses would subordinate it. NOTE 2.--There is a special fondness for the Perfect Subjunctive to represent a Perfect Indicative:
A general truth after a past tense follows the sequence of tenses:
NOTE.--In English the original tense is more commonly kept. The Historical Present (Sect: 469) is sometimes felt as a primary, ometimes as a secondary tense, and accordingly it takes either the primary or the secondary sequence:
NOTE.--After the historical present, the subjunctive with cum temporal must follow the secondary sequence:
The Historical Infinitive regularly takes the secondary sequence:
The Imperfect and Pluperfect in conditions contrary to fact (Sect: 517) and in the Deliberative Subjunctive (Sect: 444) are not affected by the sequence of tenses:
The Imperfect Subjunctive in present conditions contrary to fact (Sect: 517) is regularly followed by the secondary sequence:
The Present is sometimes followed by a secondary sequence, seemingly because the writer is thinking of past time:
When a clause depends upon one already dependent, its sequence may be secondary if the verb of that clause expresses past time, even if the main verb is in a primary tense:
NOTE.--So regularly after a Perfect Infinitive which depends on a primary tense (Sect: 585. a). 1 The term is sometimes extended to certain relations between the tenses of subordinate verbs in the indicative and those of the main verb. These relations do not differ in principle from those which we are considering; but for convenience the term Sequence of Tenses is in this book restricted to subjunctives, in accordance with the usual practice. SECTION: #486. Except in Indirect Discourse, only the Present and Perfect Infinitives are used. The Present represents the action of the verb as in progress without distinct reference to time, the Perfect as completed. For the Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse see Sect: 584. With past tenses of verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility (as débuí, oportuit, potuí), the Present Infinitive is often used in Latin where the English idiom prefers the Perfect Infinitive:
With verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility, the Perfect Infinitive may be used to emphasize the idea of completed action:
NOTE.--With the past tenses of these verbs the perfect infinitive is apparently due to attraction:
In archaic Latin and in legal formulas the Perfect Active Infinitive is often used with nóló or voló in prohibitions:
With verbs of wishingthe Perfect Passive Infinitive (commonly without esse) is often used emphatically instead of the Present:
NOTE.--The participle in this case is rather in predicate agreement (with or without esse) than used to form a strict perfect infinitive, though the full form can hardly be distinguished from that construction. In late Latin, and in poetry (often for metrical convenience), rarely in good prose, the Perfect Active Infinitive is used emphatically instead of the Present, and even after other verbs than those of wishing:
After verbs of feeling the Perfect Infinitive is used, especially by the poets, to denote a completed action. So also with satis est, satis habeó, melius est, contentus sum, and in a few other cases where the distinction of time is important:
1 Voló, and less frequently nóló, máló, and cupió. NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB SECTION: #487. The several Noun and Adjective forms associated with the verb are employed as follows: I. Participles: a. Present and Perfect: 1. Attributive ( Sect: 494). 2. Simple Predicate (Sect: 495). 3. Periphrastic Perfect (passive) (Sect: 495. N.). 4. Predicate of Circumstance (Sect: 496). 5. Descriptive (Indirect Discourse) (Sect: 497 d). b. Future 1. Periphrastic with esse (Sect: 498. a). 2. Periphrastic with fuí (=Pluperfect Subjunctive) (Sect: 498. b). c. Gerundive 1. As Descriptive Adjective (Sect: 500. 1). 2. Periphrastic with esse (Sect: 500. 2). 3. Of Purpose with certain verbs (Sect: 500. 4). II. Gerund or Gerundive: 1. Genitive as Subjective or Objective Genitive (Sect: 504). 2. Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouns, Verbs (¬ ß 505). 3. Accusative, with certain Prepositions (Sect: 506). 4. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions (Sect: 507). III. Supine: 1. Accusative Supine (in -um), with Verbs of Motion (Sect: 509). Ablative Supine (in -è ´), chiefly with Adjectives (Sect: 510). For the Syntax of the Infinitive, see Sect: 451 ff. 486. SECTION: #488. The Participle expresses the action of the verb in the form of an Adjective, but has a partial distinction of tense and may govern a case. NOTE.--Thus the participle combines all the functions of an adjective with some of the functions of a verb. As an Adjective, it limits substantives and agrees with them in gender, number, and case (Sect: 286). As a Verb, it has distinctions of time (Sect: 489) and often takes an object. Distinctions of Tense in Participles SECTION: #489. Participles denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the time of the verb in their clause. Thus the Present Participle represents the action as in progress at the time indicated by the tense of the verb, the Perfect as completed, and the Future as still to take place. SECTION: #490. The Present Participle has several of the special uses of the Present Indicative. Thus it may denote:/p>
1. An action continued in the present but begun in the past (Sect: 466):
2. Attempted action (Sect: 467):
3. Rarely (in poetry and later Latin) futurity or purpose, with a verb of motion:
SECTION: #491. The Perfect Participle of a few deponent verbs is used nearly in the sense of a Present. Such are, regularly, ratus, solitus, veritus; commonly, arbitrátus, físus, ausus, secútus, and occasionally others, especially in later writers:
SECTION: #492. The Latin has no Present Participle in the passive. The place of such a form is supplied usually by a clause with dum or cum:
NOTE.--These constructions are often used when a participle might be employed:
SECTION: #493. The Latin has no Perfect Participle in the active voice. The deficiency is supplied:/p>
1. In deponents by the perfect passive form with its regular active meaning:
NOTE.--The perfect participle of several deponent verbs may be either active or passive in meaning (Sect: 190. b). 2. In other verbs, either by the perfect passive participle in the ablative absolute (Sect: 420. N.) or by a temporal clause (especially with cum or postquam):
Uses of Participles SECTION: #494. The Present and Perfect Participles are sometimes used as attributives, nearly like adjectives:
Participles often become complete adjectives, and may be compared, or used as nouns:
SECTION: #495. Participles are often used as Predicate Adjectives. As such they may be joined to the subject by esse or a copulative verb (see ¬ ß 283):
NOTE.--From this predicate use arise the compound tenses of the passive,--the participle of completed action with the incomplete tenses of esse developing the idea of past time: as, interfectus est, he was (or has been) killed, lit. he is having-been-killed (i.e. already slain). The perfect participle used with fuí etc. was perhaps originally an intensified expression in the popular language for the perfect, pluperfect, etc. At times these forms indicate a state of affairs no longer existing:
But more frequently they are not to be distinguished from the forms with sum etc. The construction is found occasionally at all periods, but is most common in Livy and later writers. SECTION: #496. The Present and Perfect Participles are often used as a predicate, where in English a phrase or a subordinate clause would be more natural. In this use the participles express time, cause, occasion, condition, concession, characteristic (or description), manner, means, attendant circumstances:
NOTE 1.--These uses are especially frequent in the Ablative Absolute (Sect: 420). NOTE 2.--A coordinate clause is sometimes compressed into a perfect participle:
NOTE 3.--A participle with a negative often expresses the same idea which in English is given by without and a verbal noun: as,-- miserum est nihil próficientem angí (N. D. 3.14) , it is wretched to vex oneself without effecting anything. NOTE 4.-- Acceptum and expénsum as predicates with ferre and referre are bookkeeping terms: as,--quás pecúniás ferébat eís expénsás (Verr. 2.170) , what sums he charged to them. SECTION: #497. A noun and a passive participle are often so united that the participle and not the noun contains the main idea:
The perfect participle with a noun in agreement, or in the neuter as an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus, need (cf. Sect: 411. a):
The perfect participle with habeó (rarely with other verbs) has almost the same meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the continued effect of the action of the verb:
A verb of effecting or the like may be used in combination with the perfect participle of a transitive verb to express the action of that verb more forcibly:
NOTE.--Similarly voló (with its compounds) and cupió, with a perfect participle without esse (cf. Sect: 486. d). After verbs denoting an action of the senses the present participle in agreement with the object is nearly equivalent to the infinitive of indirect discourse (Sect: 580), but expresses the action more vividly:
NOTE.--The same construction is used after fació, indúcó, and the like, with the name of an author as subject: as,-- Xenophón facit Sócratem disputantem (N. D. 1.31) , Xenophon represents Socrates disputing. Future Participle (Active) SECTION: #498. The Future Participle (except futúrus and ventúrus) is rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by poets and later writers. The future participle is chiefly used with the forms of esse (often omitted in the infinitive) in the Active Periphrastic Conjugation (see Sect: 195):
With the past tenses of esse in the indicative, the future participle is often equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive (Sect: 517. d). For futúrum fuisse, see Sect: 589. b. SECTION: #499. By later writers and the poets the Future Participle is often used in simple agreement with a substantive to express:/p>
1. Likelihood or certainty:
2. Purpose, intention, or readiness:
3. Apodosis:
Gerundive (Future Passive Participle) NOTE.--The participle in -dus, commonly called the Gerundive, has two distinct uses: (1) Its predicate and attribute use as Participle or Adjective (Sect: 500). (2) Its use with the meaning of the Gerund (Sect: 503). This may be called its gerundive use. SECTION: #500. The Gerundive when used as a Participle or an Adjective is always passive, denoting necessity, obligation, or propriety. In this use of the Gerundive the following points are to be observed: 1. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect participles, in simple agreement with a noun:
2. The most frequent use of the gerundive is with the forms of esse in the Second (or passive) Periphrastic Conjugation (see Sect: 196):
3. The neuter gerundive of both transitive and intransitive verbs may be used impersonally in the second periphrastic conjugation. With verbs that take the dative or ablative, an object may be expressed in the appropriate case; with transitive verbs, an object in the accusative is sometimes found:
4. After verbs signifying to give, deliver, agree for, have, receive, undertake, demand,a gerundive in agreement with the object is used to express purpose:
SECTION: #501. The Gerund is the neuter of the Gerundive, used substantively in the Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative. SECTION: #502. The Gerund expresses an action of the verb in the form of a verbal noun. As a noun the gerund is itself governed by other words; as a verb it may take an object in the proper case:
NOTE.--The Nominative of the gerund is supplied by the Infinitive. Thus in the example above, the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguishing, if used in the nominative, would be expressed by the infinitives disserere and díiúdicáre. The Gerund is the neuter of the gerundive used impersonally, but retaining the verbal idea sufficiently to govern an object. It may therefore be regarded as a noun (cf. mátúrátó opus est, Sect: 497. a) with a verbal force (cf. istanc táctió, p. 240, footnote). 1 Compare the participle in indirect discourse in Greek (Goodwin's Greek Grammar, Sect: 1588); and the English "'T was at the royal feast for Persia won"(Dryden), i.e. for the conquest of Persia. 2 The perfect with have, in modern languages of Latin stock, has grown out of this use of habeó. 3 Such verbs are accipió, adnótó, attribuó, condúcó, cúró, dénótó, déposcó,dó, dívidó, dónó, édícó, é doceó, feró, habeó, locó, mandó, obició, permittó, petó, pónó, praebeó, própónó, relinquó, rogó, suscipió, trádó, voveó. SECTION: #503. When the Gerund would have an object in the Accusative, the Gerundiveis generally used instead. The gerundive agrees with its noun, which takes the case that the gerund would have had:
NOTE 1.--In this use the gerund and the gerundive are translated in the same way, but have really a different construction. The gerundive is a passive participle, and agrees with its noun, though in translation we change the voice, just as we may translate vigiliae agitandae sunt (guard must be kept) by I must stand guard. NOTE 2.--In the gerundive construction the verbs útor, fruor, etc., are treated like transitive verbs governing the accusative, as they do in early Latin (Sect: 410. a. N. 1): as, -- ad perfruendás voluptátés (Off. 1.25) , for enjoying pleasures. The following examples illustrate the parallel constructions of Gerund and Gerundive:
NOTE 1.--The gerund with a direct object is practically limited to the Genitive and the Ablative (without a preposition); even in these cases the gerundive is commoner. NOTE 2.--The gerund or gerundive is often found coordinated with nominal constructions, and sometimes even in apposition with a noun:
Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive SECTION: #504. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after nouns or adjectives, either as subjective or objective genitive:
NOTE 1.--In these uses the gerund and the gerundive are about equally common. NOTE 2.--In a few phrases the Infinitive is used with nouns which ordinarily have the genitive of the gerund or gerundive: as,-- tempus est abíre, it is time to go. The genitive of the gerund sometimes takes a direct object, especially a neuter pronoun or a neuter adjective used substantively:
NOTE 1.--The genitive of the gerund or gerundive is used (especially in later Latin) as a predicate genitive. When so used it often expresses purpose:
The genitive of the gerund or gerundive with causá or gratiá expresses purpose (Sect: 533. b):
The genitive of the gerund is occasionally limited by a noun or pronoun (especially a personal pronoun in the plural) in the objective genitive instead of taking a direct object:
Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive SECTION: #505. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used in a few expressions after verbs:
NOTE.--The dative of the gerund with a direct object is never found in classic Latin, but occurs twice in Plautus. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used after adjectives,especially those which denote fitness or adaptability:
NOTE.--This construction is very common in Livy and later writers, infrequent in classical prose. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used in certain legal phrases after nouns meaning officers, offices, elections, etc., to indicate the function or scope of the office etc.:
Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive SECTION: #506. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after the preposition ad, to denote Purpose (cf. Sect: 533):
NOTE 1.--Other prepositions appear in this construction; inter and ob a few times, circá, in, ante, and a few others very rarely: as, inter agendum (Ecl. 9.24) , while driving. NOTE 2.--The Accusative of the gerund with a preposition never takes a direct object in classic Latin. Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive SECTION: #507. The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used (1) to express manner,means, cause, etc.; (2) after Comparatives; and (3) after the propositions ab, dé, ex, in, and (rarely) pró:
NOTE 1.--The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is also very rarely used with verbs and adjectives: as,-- nec continuandó abstitit magistrátú (Liv. 9.34) , he did not desist from continuing his magistracy. NOTE 2.--The ablative of the gerund rarely takes a direct object in classic prose. SECTION: #508. The Supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension (Sect: 94. b), having no distinction of tense or person, and limited to two uses. (1) The form in -um is the Accusative of the end of motion (Sect: 428. i). (2) The form in -ú is usually Dative of purpose (Sect: 382), but the Ablative was early confused with it. SECTION: #509. The Supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to express purpose. It may take an object in the proper case:
NOTE 1.--The supine in -um is especially common with eó, and with the passive infinitive írí forms the future infinitive passive:
NOTE 2.--The supine in -um is occasionally used when motion is merely implied. SECTION: #510. The Supine in -úis used with a few adjectives and with the nouns fás, nefás, and opus, to denote an action in reference to which the quality is asserted:
NOTE 1.--The supine in -ú is thus in appearance an Ablative of Specification (Sect: 418). NOTE 2.--The supine in -ú is found especially with such adjectives as indicate an effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which denote ease, difficulty, and the like. But with facilis, difficilis, and iúcundus, ad with the gerund is more common:
NOTE 3.--With all these adjectives the poets often use the Infinitive in the same sense: as,--facilés aurem praebére (Prop. 2.21.15) , indulgent to lend an ear. NOTE 4.--The supine in -ú with a verb is extremely rare: as,-- pudet dictú (Tac. Agr. 32) , it is a shame to tell. [On the analogy of pudendum dictú.] SECTION: #511. The Conditional Sentence differs from other complex sentences in this, that the form of the main clause (APODOSIS) is determined in some degree by the nature of the subordinate clause (PROTASIS) upon the truth of which the whole statement depends. Like all complex sentences, however, the Conditional Sentence has arisen from the use of two independent sentence-forms to express the parts of a thought which was too complicated to be fully expressed by a simple sentence. But because the thoughts thus expressed are in reality closely related, as parts of a single whole, the sentences which represent them are also felt to be mutually dependent, even though the relation is not expressed by any connecting word. Thus, Speak the word: my servant shall be healed is a simpler and an earlier form of expression than If thou speak the word, etc. The Conditional Particles were originally pronouns without conditional meaning: thus, sí, if, is a weak demonstrative of the same origin as síc, so (sí-ce like hí-ce, see Sect: 215. 5), and had originally the meaning of in that way, or in some way. Its relative sense (if) seems to have come from its use with síc to make a pair of correlatives: thus ... thus (see Sect: 512. b). In its origin the Conditional Sentence assumed one of two forms. The condition was from the first felt to be a condition, not a fact or a command; but, as no special sentence-form for a condition was in use, it employed for its expression either a statement of fact (with the Indicative) or a form of mild command (the Subjunctive). From the former have come all the uses of the Indicative in protasis; from the latter all the uses of the Subjunctive in protasis. The Apodosis has either (1) the Indicative, expressing the conclusion as a fact, and the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, expressing it originally as future--and hence more or less doubtful--or (2) the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive expressing it as futúrum in praeteritó,and so unfulfilled in the present or past. Thus,-- rídés, máióre cachinnó concutitur, you laugh, he shakes with more boisterous laughter, is the original form for the Indicative in protasis and apodosis; sí rídés originally means merely you laugh in some way or other, and so, later, IF you laugh. So rogés Aristónem, neget, ask Aristo, he would say no, is the original form of the subjunctive in protasis and apodosis; sí rogés would mean ask in some way or other. In sí rogáres, negáret, the Imperfect rogárés transfers the command of rogés to past time,with the meaning suppose you had asked, and sí would have the same meaning as before; while negáret transfers the future idea of neget to past time, and means he was going to deny. Now the stating of this supposition at all gives rise to the implication that it is untrue in point of fact,--because, if it were true, there would ordinarily be no need to state it as a supposition: for it would then be a simple fact, and as such would be put in the indicative.Such a condition or conclusion was originally past, meaning suppose you had asked [yesterday], he was going to deny) it came to express an unfulfilled condition in the present: suppose (or if) you were now asking, he would [now] deny--just as in English ought, which originally meant owed,has come to express a present obligation. For the classification of Conditional Sentences, see Sect: 513. 1 The gerundive construction is probably the original one. 2 Such are praeesse, operam dare, diem dícere, locum capere. 3 Such are accommodátus, aptus, ineptus, bonus, habilis, idóneus, pár, útilis, inútilis. But the accusative with ad is common with most of these (cf. Sect: 385. a). 4 In this use the ablative of the gerund is, in later writers nearly, and in medieval writers entirely, equivalent to a present participle: as,-- cum úná diérum FLENDO sédisset, quídam míles generósus iúxtá eam EQUITANDO vénit (Gesta Romanorum, 66 [), as one day she sat weeping, a certain knight came riding by (compare Sect: 507, fourth example). Hence come the Italian and Spanish forms of the present participle (as mandando, esperando), the true participial form becoming an adjective in those languages. 5 The only common supines in -ú are auditú, dictú, factú, inventú, memorátú, nátú, vísú. In classic use this supine is found in comparatively few verbs. It is never followed by an object-case. 6 The futúrum in praeteritó is a tense future relatively to a time absolutely past. It denotes a future act transferred to the point of view of past time, and hence is naturally expressed by a past tense of the Subjunctive: thus díxisset, he would have said= dictúrus fuit, he was about to say [but did not]. As that which looks towards the future from some point in the past has a natural limit in present time, such a tense (the imperfect subjunctive) came naturally to be used to express a present condition purely ideal, that is to say, contrary to fact. 7 Compare potius díceret, he should rather have said (Sect: 439. b). 8 There are, however, some cases in which this implication does not arise: as,-- deciéns centéna dedissés, níl erat in loculís (Hor. S. 1.3.15) , if you'd given him a million, there was nothing in his coffers. 9 "There was a certain lender which ought him five hundred pieces.’Äù--Tyndale's New Testament. .PROTASIS AND .APODOSIS SECTION: #512. A complete Conditional Sentence consists of two clauses the Protasis and the Apodosis. The clause containing the condition is called the PROTASIS the clause containing the conclusion is called the APODOSIS:
It should be carefully noted that the Apodosis is the main clause and the Protasis the dependent clause. The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional particle sí, if, or one of its compounds. NOTE.--These compounds are sín, nisi, etiam sí, etsí, tametsí, tamenetsí (see Conditional and Concessive Particles, p. 138). An Indefinite Relative, or any relative or concessive word, may also serve to introduce a conditional clause: see Conditional Relative Clauses (Sect: 519, 542); Concessive Clauses ( Sect: 527). The Apodosis is often introduced by some correlative word or phrase: as, ita, tum (rarely síc), or eá condicióne etc.:
The Apodosis is the principal clause of the conditional sentence, but may at the same time be subordinate to some other clause, and so appear in the form of a Participle, an Infinitive, or a Phrase:
NOTE.--When the Apodosis itself is in Indirect Discourse, or in any other dependent construction, the verb of the Protasis is regularly in the Subjunctive (as in the above examples, see Sect: 589). SECTION: #513. Conditions are either (1) Particular or (2) General. 1. A Particular Condition refers to a definite act or series of acts occurring at some definite time. 2. A General Condition refers to any one of a class of acts which may occur (or may have occurred) at any time. SECTION: #514. The principal or typical forms of Conditional Sentences may be exhibited as follows: PARTICULAR CONDITIONS A. SIMPLE CONDITIONS (nothing implied as to fulfilment) 1. Present Time Present Indicative in both clauses:
2. Past Time Imperfect or Perfect Indicative in both clauses:
B. FUTURE CONDITIONS (as yet unfulfilled) 1. .More .Vivid a. Future Indicative in both clauses:
b. Future Perfect Indicative in protasis, Future Indicative in apodosis:
2. .Less .Vivid a. Present Subjunctive in both clauses:
b. Perfect Subjunctive in protasis, Present Subjunctive in apod osis:
1. Present Time Imperfect Subjunctive in both clauses:
2. Past Time Pluperfect Subjunctive in both clauses:
NOTE.--The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English. Thus if he is alive now is a PRESENT condition, to be expressed in Latin by the Present Indicative; if he is alive next year is a FUTURE condition, expressed in Latin by the Future Indicative. Again, if he were here now is a PRESENT condition contrary to fact, and would be expressed by the Imperfect Subjunctive; if he were to see me thus is a FUTURE condition less vivid, to be expressed by the Present Subjunctive; and so <
General Conditions do not usually differ in form from Particular Conditions (A, B, and C), but are sometimes distinguished in the cases following: 1. Present General Condition (Indefinite Time) a. Present Subjunctive second person singular (Indefinite Subject) in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis:
b. Perfect Indicative in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis:
2. Past General Condition (Repeated Action in Past Time) a. Pluperfect Indicative in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apodosis:
b. Imperfect Subjunctive in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apodosis:
Cf. the Greek forms corresponding to the various types of conditions: A. 1. ei prassei touto, kal?s echei. 2. ei eprasse touto, kal?s eichen. B. 1. ean prassei touto, kal?s hexei. 2. ei prassoi touto, kal?s an echoi. C. 1. ei eprasse touto, kal?s an eichen. 2. ei epraxe touto, kal?s an eschen. D. 1. ean tis klept 1 In most English verbs the Preterite (or Past) Subjunctive is identical in form with the Preterite Indicative. Thus in such a sentence as if he loved his father, he would not say this, the verb loved is really a Preterite Subjunctive, though this does not appear from the inflection. In the verb to be, however, the Subjunctive were has been preserved and differs in form from the indicative was. Simple Present and Past Conditions--Nothing Implied SECTION: #515. In the statement of Present and Past conditions whose falsity is NOT implied, the Present and Past tenses of the Indicative are used in both Protasis and Apodosis:
In these conditions the apodosis need not always be in the Indicative, but may assume any form, according to the sense:
NOTE.--Although the form of these conditions does not imply anything as to the truth of the supposition, the sense or the context may of course have some such implication:
In these two passages, the protasis really expresses cause: but the cause is put by the speaker in the form of a non-committal condition. His hearers are to draw the inference for themselves. In this way the desired impression is made on their minds more effectively than if an outspoken causal clause had been used. Future Conditions SECTION: #516. Future Conditions may be more vivid or less vivid. 1. In a more vivid future condition the protasis makes a distinct supposition of a future case, the apodosis expressing what will be the logical result. 2. In a less vivid future condition, the supposition is less distinct, the apodosis expressing what would be the result in the case supposed. In the more vivid future condition the Future Indicative is used in both protasis and apodosis:
NOTE.--In English the protasis is usually expressed by the Present Indicative, rarely by the Future with SHALL. Often in Latin the Present Indicative is found in the protasis of a condition of this kind (cf. Sect: 468):
In the less vivid future condition the Present Subjunctive is used in both protasis and apodosis:
NOTE.--The Present Subjunctive sometimes stands in protasis with the Future (or the Present) Indicative in apodosis from a change in the point of view:
If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the apodosis begins, the Future Perfect is substituted for the Future Indicative in protasis, and the Perfect Subjunctive for the Present Subjunctive:
NOTE.--The Future Perfect is often used in the apodosis of a future condition: as,--vehementer mihi grátum féceris, sí hunc aduléscentem húmánitáte tuá comprehenderis (Fam. 13.15) , you will do (will have done) me a great favor, if you receive this young man with your usual courtesy. Any form denoting or implying future time may stand in the apodosis of a future condition. So the Imperative, the participles in -dus and - rus, and verbs of necessity, possibility, and the like:
Rarely the Perfect Indicative is used in apodosis with a Present or even a Future (or Future Perfect) in protasis, to represent the conclusion rhetorically as already accomplished:
A future condition is frequently thrown back into past time, without implying that it is contrary to fact (Sect: 517). In such cases the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used:
Conditions .Contrary to Fact SECTION: #517. In the statement of a supposition impliedly false, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in both protasis and apodosis.The Imperfect refers to present time, the Pluperfect to past:
In conditions contrary to fact the Imperfect often refers to past time, both in protasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or continued action is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist:
In the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact the past tenses of the Indicative may be used to express what was intended, or likely, or already begun. In this use, the Imperfect Indicative corresponds in time to the Imperfect Subjunctive, and the Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative to the Pluperfect Subjunctive:
NOTE 1.--Here the apodosis may be regarded as elliptical. Thus,-- mátrés veniˆ®bant ( et vénissent), the matrons were coming (and would have kept on) if, etc. NOTE 2.--With paene (and sometimes prope), almost, the Perfect Indicative is used in the apodosis of a past condition contrary to fact: as,--póns iter paene hostibus dedit, ní únus vir fuisset (Liv. 2.10) , the bridge had almost given a passage to the foe, if it had not been for one hero. Verbs and other expressions denoting necessity, propriety, possibility, duty, when used in the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact, may be put in the Imperfect or Perfect Indicative. Such are oportet, decet, débeó, possum, necesse est, opus est, and the Second Periphrastic Conjugation:
NOTE 1.--In Present conditions the Imperfect Subjunctive ( oportéret, possem, etc.) is the rule, the Indicative being rare; in Past conditions both the Subjunctive (usually Pluperfect) and the Indicative (usually Perfect) are common. For pár erat, melius fuit, and the like, followed by the infinitive, see Sect: 521. N. NOTE 2.--The indicative construction is carried still further in poetry: as,-- sí nón alium iactáret odórem, laurus erat (Georg. 2.133) , it were a laurel, but for giving out a different odor. The participle in -úrus with eram or fuí may take the place of an Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact:
The Present Subjunctive is sometimes used in poetry in the protasis and apodosis of conditions contrary to fact:
NOTE 1.--This is probably a remnant of an old construction (see next note). NOTE 2.--In old Latin the Present Subjunctive (as well as the Imperfect) is used in present conditions contrary to fact and the Imperfect (more rarely the Pluperfect) in past conditions of the same kind. Thus it appears that the Imperfect Subjunctive, like the Imperfect Indicative, once denoted past time, even in conditional sentences. Gradually, however, in conditional sentences, the Present Subjunctive was restricted to the less vivid future and the Imperfect (in the main) to the present contrary to fact, while the Pluperfect was used in past conditions of this nature. The old construction, however, seems to have been retained as an archaism in poetry. In Plautus and Terence absque mé ( té, etc.) is sometimes used to introduce conditions contrary to fact:
1 It often depends entirely upon the view of the writer at the moment, and not upon the nature of the condition, whether it shall be stated vividly or not; as in the proverbial "If the sky falls, we shall catch larks"the impossible condition is iron<
2 The implication of falsity, in this construction, is not inherent in the subjunctive; but comes from the transfer of a future condition to past time. Thus the time for the happening of the condition has, at the moment of writing, already passed; so that, if the condition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact. So past forms of the indicative implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive <
3 Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of futurity (cf. p. 328, footnote). Thus, decet mé [ hodié] íre crás, means it is proper for me [to-day] to go to-morrow; and, decébat mé [ herí] íre hodié, it was proper for me [yesterday] to go to-day, usually with the implication that I have not gone as I was bound to do. SECTION: #518. General Conditions ( Sect: 513. 2) have usually the same forms as Particular Conditions. But they are sometimes distinguished in the following cases: The Subjunctive is often used in the second person singular, to denote the act of an indefinite subject (you = any one). Here the Present Indicative of a general truth may stand in the apodosis:
In a general condition in present time, the protasis often takes the Perfect Indicative, and the apodosis the Present Indicative. For past time, the Pluperfect is used in the protasis, and the Imperfect in the apodosis:
In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Caesar), the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in protasis, with the Imperfect Indicative in apodosis, to state a repeated or customary action in past time (Iterative Subjunctive):
Conditional .Relative Clauses SECTION: #519. A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb may express a condition and take any of the constructions of Protasis(Sect: 514):
The relative in this construction is always indefinite in meaning, and very often in form. SECTION: #520. The special constructions of General Conditions are sometimes found in Conditional Relative Clauses: 1. The Second Person Singular of the Subjunctive in the protasis with the Indicative of a general truth in the apodosis (Sect: 518. a):
2. The Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative in the protasis and the Present or Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis (Sect: 518. b):
3. In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the protasis and the Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis (Sect: 518. c):
Condition Disguised SECTION: #521. In many sentences properly conditional, the Protasis is not expressed by a conditional clause, but is stated in some other form of words or implied in the nature of the thought. The condition may be implied in a Clause, or in a Participle, Noun, Adverb, or some other word or phrase:
NOTE.--In several phrases denoting necessity, propriety, or the like, the Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect Indicative of esse is used in the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact, the protasis being implied in a subject infinitive (cf. 517. c):
The condition may be contained in a wish (Optative Subjunctive), or expressed as an exhortation or command (Hortatory Subjunctive or Imperative):
NOTE.--The so-called Concessive Subjunctive with ut and né often has the force of protasis (Sect: 527. a. N.): as,-- ut enim ratiónem Plató núllam adferret, ipsá auctóritáte mé frangeret (Tusc. 1.49) , even if Plato gave no reasons, [still] he would overpower me by his mere authority. Rarely the condition takes the form of an independent clause:
For Conditional Relative Clauses, see Sect: 519, 520. Condition Omitted SECTION: #522. The Protasis is often wholly omitted, but may be inferred from the course of the argument:
In expressions signifying necessity, propriety, and the like, the Indicative may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either future or contrary to fact:
NOTE 1.--In this construction, the Imperfect Indicative refers to present time; the Pluperfect to simple past time, like the Perfect. Thus oportébat means it ought to be [now], but is not; oportuerat means it ought to have been, but was not. NOTE 2.--In many cases it is impossible to say whether a protasis was present to the mind of the speaker or not (see third example above). Complex Conditions SECTION: #523. Either the Protasis or the Apodosis may be a complex idea in which the main statement is made with expressed or implied qualifications. In such cases the true logical relation of the parts is sometimes disguised:
Clauses of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted) SECTION: #524. Conditional Clauses of Comparison take the Subjunctive, usually in the Present or Perfect unless the sequence of tenses requires the Imperfect or Pluperfect. Such clauses are introduced by the comparative particles tamquam, tamquam sí, quasi, ac sí, ut sí, velut sí (later velut), poetic ceu (all meaning as if), and by quam sí (than if):
NOTE 1.--These subjunctive clauses are really future conditions with apodosis implied in the particle itself. Thus in tamquam sí claudus sim the protasis is introduced by sí, and the apodosis implied in tamquam. NOTE 2.--The English idiom would lead us to expect the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive (contrary to fact) with these particles; but the point of view is different in the two languages. Thus the second example above is translated just as if I were lame,--as if it were a present condition contrary to fact; but it really means just as [it would be] if I should [at some future time] be lame, and so is a less vivid future condition requiring the Present Subjunctive. Similarly quasi honesté víxerint, as if they had lived honorably, is really as [they would do in the future] if they should have lived honorably and so requires the Perfect Subjunctive ( Sect: 516. c). Even after a primary tense, the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive (contrary to fact) is often used in conditional clauses of comparison:
NOTE.--The practice differs with the different particles. Thus in Cicero a clause with tamquam or quasi almost always observes the sequence of tenses, but with quam sí the Imperfect or Pluperfect is the rule. Use of sí and its Compounds SECTION: #525. The uses of some of the more common Conditional Particles may be stated as follows: Sí is used for affirmative, nisi ( ní) and sí nón for negative conditions. 1. With nisi (generally unless) the apodosis is stated as universally true except in the single case supposed, in which case it is (impliedly) not true:
2. With sí nón (if not) the apodosis is only stated as true in the (negative) case supposed, but as to other cases no statement is made:
NOTE.--It often makes no difference in which of these forms the condition is stated. 3. Sometimes nisi sí, except if, unless, occurs:
NOTE.-- Ní is an old form surviving in a few conventional phrases and reappearing in poets and later writers. Nisi véró and nisi forte regularly introduce an objection or exception ironically, and take the Indicative:
NOTE.--This is the regular way of introducing a reductio ad absurdum in Latin. Nisi alone is sometimes used in this sense: as,-- nisi únum hóc faciam ut in puteó cénam coquant (Pl. Aul. 365) , unless I do this one thing, [make them] cook dinner in the well. Síve ( seu) ... síve ( seu), whether ... or, introduce a condition in the form of an alternative. They may be used with any form of condition, or with different forms in the two members. Often also they are used without a verb:
NOTE.--Síve ... seu and seu ... síve are late or poetic. Sín, but if, often introduces a supposition contrary to one that precedes:
Nisi is often used loosely by the comic poets in the sense of only when a negative (usually nesció) is expressed, or easily understood, in the main clause:
SECTION: #526. The concessive idea is rather vague and general, and takes a variety of forms, each of which has its distinct history. Sometimes concession is expressed by the Hortatory Subjunctive in a sentence grammatically independent (Sect: 440), but it is more frequently and more precisely expressed by a dependent clause introduced by a concessive particle. The concessive force lies chiefly in the Conjunctions (which are indefinite or conditional in origin), and is often made clearer by an adversative particle ( tamen, certé) in the main clause. As the Subjunctive may be used in independ ent clauses to express a concession, it is also employed in concessive clauses, and somewhat more frequently than the indicative. SECTION: #527. The Particles of Concession (meaning although, granting that) are quamvís, ut, licet, etsí, tametsí, etiam sí, quamquam, and cum. Some of these take the Subjunctive, others the Indicative, according to the nature of the clause which each introduces. Quamvís and ut take the Subjunctive:
NOTE.-- Quamvís means literally as much as you will. Thus in the first example above, let them be as incapable as you will, still, etc. The subjunctive with quamvís is hortatory, like that with né (Sect: 440); that with ut ( ut nón) is of uncertain origin. Licet, although, takes the Present or Perfect Subjunctive:
NOTE.-- Licet is properly a verb in the present tense, meaning it is granted. Hence the subjunctive is by the sequence of tenses limited to the Present and Perfect. The concessive clause with licet is hortatory in origin, but may be regarded as a substantive clause serving as the subject of the impersonal verb (Sect: 565. N.1). Etsí, etiam sí, tametsí, even if, take the same constructions as sí (see Sect: 514):
NOTE 1.-- Tametsí with the subjunctive is very rare. NOTE 2.--A protasis with sí often has a concessive force: as,-- ego, sí essent inimícitiae mihi cum C. Caesare, tamen hóc tempore reí públicae cónsulere ... débérem (Prov. Cons. 47) , as for me, even if I had private quarrels with Caesar, it would still be my duty to serve the best interests of the state at this crisis. Quamquam, although, introduces an admitted fact and takes the Indicative:
NOTE.-- Quamquam more commonly means and yet, introducing a new proposition in the indicative: as,-- quamquam haec quidem iam tolerábilia vidébantur, etsí, etc. ( Mil. 76), and yet these, in truth, seemed now bearable, though, etc. The poets and later writers frequently use quamvís and quamquam like etsí, connecting them with the Indicative or the Subjunctive, according to the nature of the condition:
Ut, as, with the Indicative, may be equivalent to a concession:
For cum concessive, see Sect: 549; for quí concessive, see Sect: 535. e. For concession expressed by the Hortatory Subjunctive (negative né), see Sect: 440. SECTION: #528. Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum ut, introducing a Proviso, take the Subjunctive. The negative with these particles is né:
NOTE.--The Subjunctive with modo is hortatory or optative; that with dum and dummodo, a development from the use of the Subjunctive with dum in temporal clauses, Sect: 553 (compare the colloquial so long as my health is good, I don't care). The Hortatory Subjunctive without a particle sometimes expresses a proviso:
The Subjunctive with ut (negative né) is sometimes used to denote a proviso, usually with ita in the main clause:
NOTE.--This is a development of the construction of Characteristic or Result. For a clause of Characteristic expressing Proviso, see Sect: 535. d. SECTION: #529. The Subjunctive in the clause of Purpose is hortatory in origin, coming through a kind of indirect discourse construction (for which see Sect: 592). Thus, mísit légátós quí dícerent means he sent ambassadors who should say, i.e. who were directed to say; in the direct orders the verb would be dícite, which would become dícant in the Indirect Discourse of narrative (Sect: 588) or dícerent in the past (cf. hortatory subjunctive in past tenses, Sect: 439. b). The Subjunctive with ut and né is, in general, similar in origin. SECTION: #530. A clause expressing purpose is called a Final Clause. SECTION: #531. Final Clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut ( utí), negative né ( ut né), or by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb.-- 1. Pure Clauses of Purpose, with ut ( utí) or né ( ut né), express the purpose of the main verb in the form of a modifying clause:
NOTE 1.--Sometimes the conjunction has a correlative ( ideó, idcircó, eó cónsilió, etc.) in the main clause (cf. Sect: 561. a):
NOTE 2.-- Ut nón sometimes occurs in clauses of purpose when nón belongs to some particular word: as,-- ut plúra nón dícam (Manil. 44) , to avoid unnecessary talk. 2. Relative Clauses of Purpose are introduced by the relative pronoun quí or a relative adverb ( ubi, unde, quó, etc.). The antecedent is expressed or implied in the main clause:
NOTE.--In this construction quí= ut is (etc.), ubi= ut ibi, and so on (Sect: 537. 2). The ablative quó (= ut eó) is used as a conjunction in final clauses which contain a comparative:
NOTE.--Occasionally quó introduces a final clause that does not contain a comparative: as,--L. Sulla exercitum, quó sibi fídum faceret, lúxuriósé habuerat ( Sall. Cat. 11), Lucius Sulla had treated the army luxuriously, in order to make it devoted to him. For quóminus (= ut eó minus) after verbs of hindering, see Sect: 558. b. SECTION: #532. The principal clause, on which a final clause depends, is often to be supplied from the context:
NOTE 1.--By a similar ellipsis the Subjunctive is used with nédum (sometimes né), still less, not to mention that:
NOTE 2.--With nédum the verb itself is often omitted: as,-- aptius húmánitátí tuae quam tóta Peloponnésus, nédum Patrae (Fam. 7.28.1) , fitter for your refinement than all Peloponnesus, to say nothing of Patrˆ ¶. For Substantive Clauses involving purpose, see Sect: 563-566. SECTION: #533. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in various ways; but never (except in idiomatic expressions and rarely in poetry) by the simple Infinitive as in English (Sect: 460). The sentence, they came to seek peace, may be rendered--
These forms are not used indifferently, but:/p>
The usual way of expressing purpose is by ut (negative né), unless the purpose is closely connected with some one word, in which case a relative is more common:
The Gerund and Gerundive constructions of purpose are usually limited to short expressions, where the literal translation, though not the English idiom, is nevertheless not harsh or strange. The Supine is used to express purpose only with verbs of motion, and in a few idiomatic expressions (Sect: 509). The Future Participle used to express purpose is a late construction of inferior authority (Sect: 499. 2). For the poetical Infinitive of Purpose, see Sect: 460. c. For the Present Participle in a sense approaching that of purpose, see Sect: 490. 3. SECTION: #534. The relative clause of Characteristic with the Subjunctive is a development peculiar to Latin. A relative clause in the Indicative merely states something as a fact which is true of the antecedent; a characteristic clause (in the Subjunctive) defines the antecedent as a person or thing of such a character that the statement made is true of him or it and of all others belonging to the same class. Thus,-- nón potest exercitum is continére imperátor quí sé ipse nón continet (indicative) means simply, that commander who does not (as a fact) restrain himself cannot restrain his army; whereas nón potest exercitum is continére imperátor quí sé ipse nón contineat (subjunctive) would mean, that commander who is not such a man as to restrain himself, etc., that is, who is not characterized by self-restraint. This construction has its origin in the potential use of the subjunctive (Sect: 445) Thus, in the example just given, quí sé ipse nón contineat would mean literally, who would not restrain himself (in any supposable case), and this potential idea passes over easily into that of general quality or characteristic. The characterizing force is most easily felt when the antecedent is indefinite or general. But this usage is extended in Latin to cases which differ but slightly from statements of fact, as in some of the examples below. The use of the Subjunctive to express Result comes from its use in Clauses of Characteristic. Thus, nón sum ita hebes ut haec dícam means literally, I am not dull in the manner (degree) in which I should say this, hence, I am not so dull as to say this. Since, then, the characteristic often appears in the form of a supposed result, the construction readily passes over into Pure Result, with no idea of characteristic; as,-- tantus in cúriá clámor factus est ut populus concurreret (Verr. 2.47) , such an outcry was made in the senate-house that the people hurried together. SECTION: #535. A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to indicate a characteristic of the antecedent, especially where the antecedent is otherwise undefined:
A Relative Clause of Characteristic is used after general expressions of existence or non-existence, including questions which imply a negative. So especially with sunt quí, there are [some] who; quis est quí, who is there who?--
NOTE 1.--After general negatives like némó est quí, the Subjunctive is regular; after general affirmatives like sunt quí, it is the prevailing construction, but the Indicative sometimes occurs; after multí ( nón núllí, quídam) sunt quí, and similar expressions in which the antecedent is partially defined, the choice of mood depends on the shade of meaning which the writer wishes to express:
NOTE 2.--Characteristic clauses with sunt quí etc. are sometimes called Relative Clauses with an Indefinite Antecedent, but are to be carefully distinguished from the Indefinite Relative in protasis (Sect: 520). NOTE 3.--The phrases est cum, fuit cum, etc. are used like est quí, sunt quí: as,-- ac fuit cum mihi quoque initium requiéscendí fore iústum arbitrárer (De Or. 1.1) , and there was a time when I thought a beginning of rest would be justifiable on my part. A Relative Clause of Characteristic may follow únus and sólus:
A clause of Result or Characteristic with quam ut, quam quí (rarely with quam alone), may be used after comparatives:
NOTE.--This construction corresponds in sense to the English too ... to. A relative clause of characteristic may express restriction or proviso (cf. Sect: 528. b):
A Relative Clause of Characteristic may express cause or concession:
NOTE 1.--In this use the relative is equivalent to cum is etc. It is often preceded by ut, utpote, or quippe:
NOTE 2.--The Relative of Cause or Concession is merely a variety of the Characteristic construction. The quality expressed by the Subjunctive is connected with the action of the main verb either as cause on account of which (SINCE) or as hindrance in spite of which (ALTHOUGH). Dígnus, indígnus, aptus, idóneus take a subjunctive clause with a relative (rarely ut). The negative is nón:
NOTE 1.--This construction is sometimes explained as a relative clause of purpose, but it is more closely related to characteristic. NOTE 2.--With dígnus etc., the poets often use the Infinitive:
SECTION: #536. The Subjunctive in Consecutive Clauses is a development of the use of that mood in Clauses of Characteristic (as explained in Sect: 534). SECTION: #537. Clauses of Result take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so that (negative, ut nón), or by a relative pronoun or relative adverb. 1. Pure Clauses of Result, with ut or ut nón, express the result of the main verb in the form of a modifying clause:
2. Relative Clauses of Result are introduced by the relative pronoun quí or a relative adverb ( ubi, unde, quó, etc.). The antecedent is expressed or implied in the main clause. The Relative in this construction is equivalent to ut with the corre sponding demonstrative: quí = ut is (etc.), ubi = ut ibi, and so on:
NOTE 1.--Since the relative clause of Result is a development from the relative clause of Characteristic (Sect: 534), no sharp line can be drawn between the two constructions. In doubtful cases, it is better to attempt no distinction or to describe the clause as one of Characteristic. NOTE 2.--Clauses of Result are often introduced by such correlative words as tam, tális, tantus, ita, síc, adeó. úsque eó, which belong to the main clause. A Negative Result is introduced by ut nón, ut némó, quí nón, etc., not by né:
NOTE.--When the result implies an effect intended (not a simple purpose), ut né or né is sometimes used as being less positive than ut nón: [ librum] ita corrigás né mihi noceat ( Caecina, Fam. 6.7.6), correct the book so that it may not hurt me. Frequently a clause of result or characteristic is used in a restrictive sense, and so amounts to a Proviso (cf. Sect: 535. d):
The clause of result is sometimes expressed in English by the Infinitive with TO or SO AS TO or an equivalent:
NOTE.--Result is never expressed by the Infinitive in Latin except by the poets in a few passages (Sect: 461. a). SECTION: #538. The constructions of Purpose and Result are precisely alike in the affirmative (except sometimes in tense sequence, Sect: 485. c); but, in the negative, Purpose takes né, Result ut nón etc.:
So in negative Purpose clauses né quis, né quid, ne- ullus, né quó, né quandó, nécubi, etc. are almost always used; in negative Result clauses, ut némó, ut nihil, ut núllus, etc.:
For clauses of Result or Characteristic with quín, see Sect: 559. For Substantive Clauses of Result, see Sect: 567-571. SECTION: #539. Causal Clauses take either the Indicative or the Subjunctive, according to their construction; the idea of cause being contained, not in the mood itself, but in the form of the argument (by implication), in an antecedent of causal meaning (like proptereá), or in the connecting particles. Quod is in origin the relative pronoun (stem quo-) used adverbially in the accusative neuter (cf. Sect: 214. d) and gradually sinking to the position of a colorless relative con junction (cf. English that and see Sect: 222). Its use as a causal particle is an early special development. Quia is perhaps an accusative plural neuter of the relative stem qui-, and seems to have developed its causal sense more distinctly than quod, and at an earlier period. It is used (very rarely) as an interrogative, why? (so in classical Latin with nam only), and may, like quandó, have developed from an interrogative to a relative particle. Quoniam (for quom iam) is also of relative origin ( quom being a case-form of the pronominal stem quo-). It occurs in old Latin in the sense of when (cf. quom, cum), from which the causal meaning is derived (cf. cum causal). The Subjunctive with quod and quia depends on the principle of Informal Indirect Discourse (Sect: 592). Quandó is probably the interrogative quam (how?) compounded with a form of the pronominal stem do- (cf. dum, dó- nec). It originally denoted time (first interrogatively, then as a relative), and thus came to signify cause. Unlike quod and quia, it is not used to state a reason in informal indirect discourse and therefore is never followed by the Subjunctive. SECTION: #540. The Causal Particles quod and quia take the Indicative, when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or speaker; the Subjunctive, when the reason is given on the authority of another: 1. Indicative:
2. Subjunctive:
NOTE 1.-- Quod introduces either a fact or a statement, and accordingly takes either the Indicative or the Subjunctive. Quia regularly introduces a fact; hence it rarely takes the Subjunctive. Quoniam, inasmuch as, since, when now, now that, has reference to motives, excuses, justifications, and the like and takes the Indicative. NOTE 2.--Under this head what the speaker himself thought under other circumstances may have the Subjunctive (Sect: 592. 3. N.): as,-- ego laeta vísa sum quia soror vénisset (Pl. Mil. 387), I seemed (in my dream) glad because my sister had come. So with quod even a verb of saying may be in the Subjunctive: as,-- rediit quod sé oblítum nesció quid díceret (Off. 1.40) , he returned because he said he had forgotten something. NOTE 3.-- Nón quod, nón quia, nón quó, introducing a reason expressly to deny it, take the Subjunctive; but the Indicative sometimes occurs when the statement is in itself true, though not the true reason. In the negative, nón quín (with the Subjunctive) may be used in nearly the same sense as nón quod nón. After a comparative, quam quó or quam quod is used:
Quoniam and quandó, since, introduce a reason given on the authority of the writer or speaker, and take the Indicative:
NOTE.--The Subjunctive with quoniam is unclassical. Quandó, since, in the causal sense, is mostly archaic or late. Quandó, when, is used as interrogative, relative, and indefinite: as,-- quandó? hodié, when? to-day; sí quandó, if ever. Causal clauses introduced by quod, quia, quoniam, and quandó take the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse, like any other dependent clause (see Sect: 580). A Relative, when used to express cause, regularly takes the Subjunctive (see Sect: 535. e). Cum causal takes the Subjunctive (see Sect: 549). For Substantive Clauses with quod, see Sect: 572. SECTION: #541. Temporal Clauses are introduced by particles which are almost all of relative origin. They are construed like other relative clauses, except where they have developed into special idiomatic constructions. For list of Temporal Particles, see p. 138. Temporal Clauses may be classified as follows: I. Conditional Relative Clauses: ubi, ut, cum, quandó, in Protasis (Sect: 542). II. Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc. (Indicative), (Sect: 543). III. Clauses with cum 1. Cum temporal (Sect: 545-548). 2. Cum causal or concessive (Sect: 549). IV. Clauses with antequam and priusquam (Indicative or Subjunctive) (Sect: 551). V. Clauses with dum, dónec, and quoad (Indicative or Subjunctive) (Sect: 552-556). 1 As in the Greek os an, hotan, etc.; and in statutes in English, where the phrases if any person shall and whoever shall are used indifferently. 2 With all temporal particles the Subjunctive is often found depending on some other principle of construction. (See Intermediate Clauses. Sect: 591.) Conditional Relative Clauses SECTION: #542. The particles ubi, ut, cum, quandó, either alone or compounded with - cumque, may be used as Indefinite Relatives (in the sense of whenever), and have the constructions of Protasis (cf. Sect: 514):
Temporal Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc. SECTION: #543. The particles postquam (posteáquam), ubi, ut ( ut prímum, ut semel), simul atque ( simul ac, or simul alone), take the Indicative (usually in the perfect or the historical present):
These particles less commonly take the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indicative. The Imperfect denotes a past state of things; the Pluperfect, an action completed in past time:
For the use of ubi, ut, either alone or compounded with - cumque as Indefinite Relatives, see Sect: 542. SECTION: #544. The conjunction cum ( quom) is a case-form of the relative pronoun quí. It inherits from quí its subordinating force, and in general shares its constructions. But it was early specialized to a temporal meaning (cf. tum, dum), and its range of usage was therefore less wide than that of quí; it could not, for example, introduce clauses of purpose or of result. With the Indicative, besides the simple expression of definite time (corresponding to simple relative clauses with the Indicative), it has a few special uses,--conditional, explicative, cum inversum--all easily derived from the temporal use. With the Subjunctive, cum had a development parallel to that of the quí-clause of Characteristic,--a development not less extensive and equally peculiar to Latin. From defining the time the cum-clause passed over to the description of the time by means of its attendant circumstances of cause or concession (cf. since, while). In particular, cum with the Subjunctive was used in narrative (hence the past tenses, Imperfect and Pluperfect) as a descriptive clause of time. As, however, the present participle in Latin is restricted in its use and the perfect active participle is almost wholly lacking, the historical or narrative cum-clause came into extensive use to supply the deficiency. In classical writers the narrative cum-clause (with the Subjunctive) has pushed back the defining clause (with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indicative) into comparative infrequency, and is itself freely used where the descriptive or characterizing force is scarcely perceptible (cf. the quí-clause of Characteristic, Sect: 534). Cum Temporal SECTION: #545. A temporal clause with cum, when, and some past tense of the Indicative dates or defines the time at which the action of the main verb occurred:
NOTE 1.--This is the regular use with all tenses in early Latin, and at all times with the Perfect and the Historical Present (as with postquam etc.). With the Imperfect and Pluperfect the Indicative use is (in classical Latin) much less common than the Subjunctive use defined below (Sect: 546). NOTE 2.--This construction must not be confused with that of cum, whenever, in General Conditions (Sect: 542). When the time of the main clause and that of the temporal clause are absolutely identical, cum takes the Indicative in the same tense as that of the main verb:
SECTION: #546. A temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive describes the circumstances that accompanied or preceded the action of the main verb:
NOTE 1.--This construction is very common in narrative, and cum in this use is often called narrative cum. NOTE 2.-- Cum with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indicative does not (like cum with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive) describe the time by its circumstances; it defines the time of the main verb by denoting a coˆ´xistent state of things (Imperfect Indicative) or a result attained when the action of the main verb took place (Pluperfect). Thus the construction is precisely that of postquam etc. (Sect: 543. a). NOTE 3.--The distinction between the uses defined in Sect: 545, 546, may be illustrated by the following examples: (1) He had a fever when he was in Spain (Shakspere). Here the when-clause defines the time when Caesar had the fever,--namely, in the year of his Spanish campaign (B.C. 49). In Latin we should use cum with the Imperfect Indicative. (2) Columbus discovered America when he was seeking a new route to India; here the when-clause does not define or date the time of the discovery; it merely describes the circumstances under which America was discovered,--namely, in the course of a voyage undertaken for another purpose. In Latin we should use the Imperfect Subjunctive. NOTE 4.--The distinction explained in Note # is unknown to early Latin. In Plautus quom always has the Indicative unless the Subjunctive is required for some other reason. When the principal action is expressed in the form of a temporal clause with cum, and the definition of the time becomes the main clause, cum takes the Indicative. Here the logical relations of the two clauses are inverted; hence cum is in this use called cum inversum:
SECTION: #547. Present time with cum temporal is denoted by the Present Indicative; future time, by the Future or Future Perfect Indicative:
SECTION: #548. Cum, whenever, takes the construction of a relative clause in a general condition (see Sect: 542). For present time, either the Present or the Perfect Indicative is used; for past time, regularly the Pluperfect Indicative. For est cum etc., see Sect: 535. a. N.3. Cum Causal or Concessive SECTION: #549. Cum causal or concessive takes the Subjunctive:
Cum causal may usually be translated by since; cum concessive by although or while; either, occasionally, by when. NOTE 1.-- Cum in these uses is often emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe, praesertim; as,-- nec reprehendó: quippe cum ipse istam reprehénsiónem nón fúgerim ( Att. 10.3A), I find no fault; since I myself did not escape that blame. NOTE 2.--These causal and concessive uses of cum are of relative origin and are parallel to quí causal and concessive (Sect: 535. e). The attendant circumstances are regarded as the cause of the action, or as tending to hinder it. NOTE 3.--In early Latin cum ( quom) causal and concessive usually takes the Indicative: as,-- quom tua rés distrahitur, utinam videam (Pl. Trin. 617) , since your property is being torn in pieces, O that I may see, etc. Cum with the Indicative frequently introduces an explanatory statement, and is sometimes equivalent to quod, on the ground that:
NOTE.--This is merely a special use of cum temporal expressing coincident time (Sect: 545. a). Cum ... tum, signifying both ... and, usually takes the Indicative; but when cum approaches the sense of while or though, the Subjunctive is used (Sect: 549):
Antequam and Priusquam SECTION: #550. Antequam and priusquam, before, introduce Clauses of Time which resemble those with cum temporal in their constructions. Priusquam consists of two parts (often written separately and sometimes separated by other words), the comparative adverb prius, sooner (before), which really modifies the main verb, and the relative particle quam, than, which introduces the subordinate clause. The latter is therefore a relative clause, and takes the Indicative or the Subjunctive (like other relative clauses) according to the sense intended. The Subjunctive with priusquam is related to that of purpose (Sect: 529) and is sometimes called the Anticipatory or Prospective Subjunctive. Antequam, like priusquam, consists of two words, the first of which is the adverb ante, before, modifying the main verb. Its constructions are the same as those of priusquam, but the latter is commoner in classic prose. SECTION: #551. Antequam and priusquam take sometimes the Indicative sometimes the Subjunctive. With antequam or priusquam the Perfect Indicative states a fact in past time:
NOTE.--The Perfect Indicative in this construction is regular when the main clause is negative and the main verb is in an historical tense. The Imperfect Indicative is rare; the Pluperfect Indicative, very rare. The Perfect Subjunctive is rare and ante-classical, except in Indirect Discourse. With antequam or priusquam the Imperfect Subjunctive is common when the subordinate verb implies purpose or expectancy in past time, or when the action that it denotes did not take place:
NOTE 1.--The Pluperfect Subjunctive is rare, except in Indirect Discourse by sequence of tenses for the Future Perfect Indicative (Sect: 484. c): as,-- antequam hominés nefárií dé meó adventú audíre potuissent, in Macedoniam perréxí (Planc. 98) , before those evil men could learn of my coming, I arrived in Macedonia. NOTE 2.--After an historical present the Present Subjunctive is used instead of the Imperfect: as,-- neque ab eó prius Domitiání mílités discédunt quam in cónspectum Caesaris dédúcátur (B. C. 1.22) , and the soldiers of Domitius did (do) not leave him until he was (is) conducted into Caesar's presence. So, rarely, the Perfect Subjunctive (as B. G. 3.18). Antequam and priusquam, when referring to future time, take the Present or Future Perfect Indicative; rarely the Present Subjunctive:
NOTE 1.--The Future Indicative is very rare. NOTE 2.--In a few cases the Subjunctive of present general condition is found with antequam and priusquam (cf. Sect: 518. a): as,--in omnibus negótiís priusquam aggrediáre, adhibenda est praeparátió díligéns (Off. 1.73) , in all undertakings, before you proceed to action, careful preparation must be used. Dum, Dónec, and Quoad SECTION: #552. As an adverb meaning for a time, awhile, dum is found in old Latin, chiefly as an enclitic (cf. vixdum, nóndum). Its use as a conjunction comes either through correlation (cf. cum ... tum, sí ... síc) or through substitution for a conjunction, as in the English the moment I saw it, I understood. Quoad is a compound of the relative quó, up to which point, with ad. The origin and early history of dónec are unknown. SECTION: #553. Dum and quoad, until, take the Present or Imperfect Subjunctive in temporal clauses implying intention or expectancy:
NOTE 1.-- Dónec is similarly used in poetry and later Latin: as,-- et dúxit longé dónec curváta coírent inter sé capita ( Aen. 11.860), and drew it (the bow) until the ourved tips touched each other. NOTE 2.-- Dum, until, may be used with the Present or Future Perfect Indicative to state a future fact when there is no idea of intention or expectancy; but this construction is rare in classic prose. The Future is also found in early Latin. Dónec, until, is similarly used, in poetry and early Latin, with the Present and Future Perfect Indicative, rarely with the Future:
SECTION: #554. Dónec and quoad, until, with the Perfect Indicative denote an actual fact in past time:
NOTE.-- Dum, until, with the Perfect Indicative is rare: as,-- mánsit in condicióne úsque ad eum fínem dum iúdicés reiiectí sunt (Verr. 1.16) , he remained true to the agreement until the jurors were challenged. SECTION: #555. Dum, dónec, and quoad, as long as, take the Indicative:
NOTE 1.-- Dónec in this use is confined to poetry and later writers. NOTE 2.-- Quam diú, as long as, takes the Indicative only: as,-- sé oppidó tam diú tenuit quam diú in próvinciá Parthí fuérunt (Fam. 12.19.2) , he kept himself within the town as long as the Parthians were in the province. SECTION: #556. Dum, while, regularly takes the Present Indicative to denote continued action in past time. In translating, the English Imperfect must generally be used:
NOTE.--This construction is a special use of the Historical Present (Sect: 469). A past tense with dum (usually so long as) makes the time emphatic by contrast; but a few irregular cases of dum with a past tense occur where no contrast is intended:
NOTE.--In later writers, dum sometimes takes the Subjunctive when the classical usage would require the Indicative, and dónec, until, is freely used in this manner (especially by Tacitus):
For dum, provided that, see Sect: 528. SECTION: #557. The original meaning of quín is how not? why not? (quí- né), and when used with the Indicative or (rarely) with the Subjunctive it regularly implies a general negative. Thus, quín ego hóc rogem? why should n't I ask this? implies that there is no reason for not asking. The implied negative was then expressed in a main clause, like núlla causa est or fierí nón potest. Hence come the various dependent constructions introduced by quín. Quóminus is really a phrase ( quó minus), and the dependent constructions which it introduces have their origin in the relative clause of purpose with quó and a comparative (see Sect: 531. a). SECTION: #558. A subjunctive clause with quín is used after verbs and other expressions of hindering, resisting, refusing, doubting, delaying, and the like, when these are negatived, either expressly or by implication:
Quín is especially common with nón dubitó, I do not doubt, nón est dubium, there is no doubt, and similar expressions:
NOTE 1.-- Dubitó without a negative is regularly followed by an Indirect Question; so sometimes nón dubitó and the like:
NOTE 2.-- Nón dubitó in the sense of I do not hesitate commonly takes the Infinitive, but sometimes quín with the Subjunctive:
Verbs of hindering and refusing often take the subjunctive with né or quóminus (= ut eó minus), especially when the verb is not negatived:
NOTE.--Some verbs of hindering may take the Infinitive:
SECTION: #559. A clause of Result or Characteristic may be introduced <
1. Clauses of Result:
2. Clauses of Characteristic:
NOTE.-- Quín sometimes introduces a pure clause of result with the sense of ut nón: as,-- numquam tam male est Siculís quín aliquid facété et commodé dícant (Verr. 4.95) , things are never so bad with the Sicilians but that they have something pleasant or witty to say. For quín in independent constructions. see Sect: 440 SECTION: #560. A clause which is used as a noun may be called a Substantive Clause, as certain relative clauses are sometimes called adjective clauses. But in practice the term is restricted to clauses which represent a nominative or an accusative case, the clauses which stand for an ablative being sometimes called adverbial clauses. Even with this limitation the term is not quite precise (see p. 367, footnote 1). The fact is rather that the clause and the leading verb are mutually complementary; each reinforces the other. The simplest and probably the earliest form of such sentences is to be found in the paratactic use (see Sect: 268) of two verbs like voló abeás, dícámus cénseó, adeam optimum est. From such verbs the usage spread by analogy to other verbs (see lists on pp. 363, 367, footnotes), and the complementary relation of the clause to the verb came to resemble the complementary force of the accusative, especially the accusative of cognate meaning (Sect: 390). SECTION: #561. A clause used as a noun is called a Substantive Clause. A Substantive Clause may be used as the Subject or Object of a verb, as an Appositive, or as a Predicate Nominative or Accusative. NOTE 1.--Many ideas which in English take the form of an abstract noun may be rendered by a substantive clause in Latin. Thus, he demanded an investigation may be postulábat ut quaestió habérétur. The common English expression for with the infinitive also corresponds to a Latin substantive clause: as,--it remains for me to speak of the piratic war, reliquum est ut dé belló dícam píráticó. NOTE 2.--When a Substantive Clause is used as subject, the verb to which it is subject is called impersonal, and the sign of the construction in English is commonly the so-called expletive IT. SECTION: #562. Substantive Clauses are classified as follows: 1. Subjunctive Clauses ( ut, né, ut nón, etc.). a. Of purpose (command, wish, fear) (Sect: 563, 564). b. Of result (happen, effect, etc.) (Sect: 568). 2. Indicative Clauses with quod: Fact, Specification, Feeling (Sect: 572). 3. Indirect Questions: Subjunctive, introduced by an Interrogative Word (Sect: 573-576). 4. Infinitive Clauses a. With verbs of ordering, wishing, etc. (Sect: 563). b. Indirect Discourse (Sect: 579 ff.). NOTE.--The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is not strictly a clause, but in Latin it has undergone so extensive a development that it may be so classed. The uses of the Infinitive Clause are of two kinds: (1) in constructions in which it replaces a subjunctive clause with ut etc.; (2) in the Indirect Discourse. The first class will be discussed in connection with the appropriate subjunctive constructions (Sect: 563); for Indirect Discourse, see Sect: 579 ff. Substantive Clauses of Purpose SECTION: #563. Substantive Clauses of Purpose with ut (negative né) are used as the object of verbs denoting an action directed toward the future. Such are, verbs meaning to admonish, ask, bargain, command, decree, determine, permit, persuade, resolve, urge, and wish:
NOTE.--With any verb of these classes the poets may use the Infinitive instead of an object clause:
For the Subjunctive without ut with verbs of commanding, see Sect: 565. a. Iubeó, order, and vetó, forbid, take the Infinitive with Subject Accusative:
NOTE.--Some other verbs of commanding etc. occasionally take the Infinitive:
Verbs of wishing take either the Infinitive or the Subjunctive. With voló ( nóló, máló) and cupió the Infinitive is commoner, and the subject of the infinitive is rarely expressed when it would be the same as that of the main verb. With other verbs of wishing the Subjunctive is commoner when the subject changes, the Infinitive when it remains the same. 1. Subject of dependent verb same as that of the verb of wishing:
2. Subject of dependent verb different from that of the verb of wishing:
For voló and its compounds with the Subjunctive without ut, see Sect: 565. Verbs of permitting take either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive. Patior takes regularly the Infinitive with Subject Accusative; so often sinó:
Verbs of determining, decreeing, resolving, bargaining, take either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive:
NOTE 1.--Different verbs of these classes with the same meaning vary in their construction (see the Lexicon). For verbs of bargaining etc. with the Gerundive, see Sect: 500. 4. NOTE 2.--Verbs of decreeing and voting often take the Infinitive of the Second Periphrastic conjugation: Régulus captívós reddendós [ esse] nón cénsuit (Off. 1.39) , Regulus voted that the captives should not be returned. [He said, in giving his formal opinion: captíví nón reddendí sunt.] Verbs of caution and effort take the Subjunctive with ut. But cónor, try, commonly takes the Complementary Infinitive:
NOTE 1.-- Cónor sí also occurs (as B. G. 1.8); cf. míror sí etc., Sect: 572. b. N. NOTE 2.-- Ut né occurs occasionally with verbs of caution and effort (cf. Sect: 531): cúrá et próvidé ut néquid eí désit (Att. 11.3.3) , take care and see that he lacks nothing. For the Subjunctive with quín and quóminus with verbs of hindering etc., see Sect: 558. SECTION: #564. Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, with né affirmative and né nón or ut negative. In this use né is commonly to be translated by that, ut and né nón by that not:
NOTE.--The subjunctive in né-clauses after a verb of fearing is optative in origin. To an independent ne-sentence, as né accidat, may it not happen, a verb may be prefixed (cf. Sect: 560), making a complex sentence. Thus, vidé né accidat; óró né accidat; cavet né accidat; when the prefixed verb is one of fearing, timeó né accidat becomes let it not happen, but I fear that it may. The origin of the ut-clause is similar. SECTION: #565. Voló and its compounds, the impersonals licet and oportet, and the imperatives díc and fac often take the Subjunctive without ut:
NOTE 1.--In such cases there is no ellipsis of ut. The expressions are idiomatic remnants of an older construction in which the subjunctives were hortatory or optative and thus really independent of the verb of wishing etc. In the classical period, however, they were doubtless felt as subordinate. Compare the use of cavé and the subjunctive (without né) in Prohibitions (Sect: 450), which appears to follow the analogy of fac. NOTE 2.-- Licet may take (1) the Subjunctive, usually without ut; (2) the simple Infinitive; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative; (4) the Dative and the Infinitive (see Sect: 455. 1). Thus, I may go is licet eam, licet íre, licet mé íre, or licet mihi íre. For licet in concessive clauses, see Sect: 527. b. NOTE 3.-- Oportet may take (1) the Subjunctive without ut; (2) the simple Infinitive; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. Thus I must go is oportet eam, oportet íre, or oportet mé íre. Verbs of commanding and the like often take the subjunctive without ut:
NOTE.--The subjunctive in this construction is the hortatory subjunctive used to express a command in Indirect Discourse (Sect: 588). Substantive Clauses of Purpose with Passive Verbs SECTION: #566. A Substantive Clause used as the object of a verb becomes the subject when the verb is put in the passive (Impersonal Construction):
With verbs of admonishing, the personal object becomes the subject and the object clause is retained:
Some verbs that take an infinitive instead of a subjunctive are used impersonally in the passive, and the infinitive becomes the subject of the sentence:
With iubeó, vetó, and cógó, the subject accusative of the infinitive becomes the subject nominative of the main verb, and the infinitive is retained as complementary (Personal Construction):
Substantive Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses) SECTION: #567. Clauses of Result may be used substantively, (1) as the object of fació etc. (Sect: 568); (2) as the subject of these same verbs in the passive, as well as of other verbs and verbal phrases (Sect: 569); (3) in apposition with another substantive, or as predicate nominative etc. (see Sect: 570, 571). SECTION: #568. Substantive Clauses of Result with ut (negative ut nón) are used as the object of verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort. Such are especially fació and its compounds ( effició, cónfició, etc.):
NOTE 1.--The expressions facere ut, committere ut, with the subjunctive, often form a periphrasis for the simple verb: as,-- invítus fécí ut Fláminium é senátú éicerem (Cat. M. 42) , it was with reluctance that I expelled Flaminius from the senate. SECTION: #569. Substantive Clauses of Result are used as the subject of the following: 1. Of passive verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort:
2. Of Impersonals meaning it happens, it remains, it follows, it is necessary, it is added, and the like (Sect: 568, footnote):
NOTE 1.--The infinitive sometimes occurs: as,-- nec enim acciderat mihi opus esse (Fam. 6.11.1) , for it had not happened to be necessary to me. NOTE 2.-- Necesse est often takes the subjunctive without ut: as,-- concédás necesse est (Rosc. Am. 87) , you must grant. 3. Of est in the sense of it is the fact that, etc. (mostly poetic):
Fore (or futúrum esse) ut with a clause of result as subject is Often used instead of the Future Infinitive active or passive; so necessarily in verbs which have no supine stem:
SECTION: #570. A substantive clause of result may be in apposition with another substantive (especially a neuter pronoun):
SECTION: #571. A substantive clause of result may serve as predicate nominative after mós est and similar expressions:
A result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows quam after a comparative (but see Sect: 583. c):
The phrase tantum abest, it is so far [from being the case], regularly takes two clauses of result with ut: one is substantive, the subject of abest; the other is adverbial, correlative with tantum:
Rarely, a thought or an idea is considered as a result, and is expressed by the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and infinitive (Sect: 580). In this case a demonstrative usually precedes:
For Relative Clauses with quín after verbs of hindering etc., see Sect: 558. Indicative with Quod SECTION: #572. A peculiar form of Substantive Clause consists of quod (in the sense of that, the fact that) with the Indicative. The clause in the Indicative with quod is used when the statement is regarded as a fact:
NOTE.--Like other substantive clauses, the clause with quod may be used as subject, as object, as appositive, etc., but it is commonly either the subject or in apposition with the subject. A substantive clause with quod sometimes appears as an accusative of specification, corresponding to the English whereas or as to the fact that:
Verbs of feeling and the expression of feeling take either quod ( quia) or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse):
NOTE.-- Míror and similar expressions are sometimes followed by a clause with sí.This is apparently substantive, but really protasis (cf. Sect: 563. e. N. 1). Thus,-- míror sí quemquam amícum habére potuit (Lael. 54) , I wonder if he could ever have a friend. [Originally, If this is so, I wonder at it.] SECTION: #573. An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause which is introduced by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, etc.), and which is itself the subject or object of a verb, or depends on any expression implying uncertainty or doubt. In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distinguished from interrogative (see the third example below). SECTION: #574. An Indirect Question takes its verb in the Subjunctive:
NOTE.--An Indirect Question may be the subject of a verb (as in the fourth example), the direct object (as in the first), the secondary object (as in the sixth), an appositive (as in the seventh). SECTION: #575. The Sequence of Tenses in Indirect Question is illustrated by the following examples:
Indirect Questions referring to future time take the subjunctive of the First Periphrastic Conjugation:
NOTE.--This Periphrastic Future avoids the ambiguity which would be caused by using the Present Subjunctive to refer to future time in such clauses. The Deliberative Subjunctive (Sect: 444) remains unchanged in an Indirect Question, except sometimes in tense:
Indirect Questions often take the Indicative in early Latin and in poetry:
Nesció quis, when used in an indefinite sense (somebody or other), is not followed by the Subjunctive. So also nesció quó ( unde, an, etc.), and the following idiomatic phrases which are practically adverbs:
Examples are:
SECTION: #576. In colloquial usage and in poetry the subject of an In direct Question is often attracted into the main clause as object (Accusative of Anticipation):
NOTE.--In some cases the Object of Anticipation becomes the Subject by a change of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and interrogative constructions is the result:
An indirect question is occasionally introduced by sí in the sense of whether (like if in English, cf. Sect: 572. b. N.):
NOTE.--This is strictly a Protasis, but usually no Apodosis is thought of, and the clause is virtually an Indirect Question. For the Potential Subjunctive with forsitan (originally an Indirect Question), see Sect: 447. a. 1 Such verbs or verbal phrases are id agó, ad id venió, caveó ( né), cénseó, cógó, concédó, cónstituó, cúró, décernó, édícó, flágitó, hortor, imperó, ínstó, mandó, metuó ( né). moneó, negótium dó, operam dó, óró, persuádeó, petó, postuló, praecipió, precor, prónúntió. quaeró, rogó, scíscó, timeó ( né), vereor ( né), videó, voló. 2 In all these cases the clause is not strictly subject or object. The main verb originally conveyed a meaning sufficient in itself, and the result clause was merely complementary. This is seen by the frequent use of ita and the like with the main verb ( ita accidit ut, etc.). In like manner purpose clauses are only apparently subject or object of the verb with which they are connected. 3 Verbs and phrases taking an ut-clause of result as subject or object are accédit, accidit, additur, altera est rés, committó, cónsequor, contingit, effició, évenit, fació, fit, flerí potest, fore, impetró, integrum est, mós est, múnus est, necesse est, prope est, réctum est, relinquitur, reliquum est, restat, tantí est, tantum abest, and a few others. 4 Cf. the Greek thaumazo ei. SECTION: #577. The use of the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse ( órátió oblíqua) is a comparatively late form of speech, developed in the Latin and Greek only, and perhaps separately in each of them. It is wholly wanting in Sanskrit, but some forms like it have grown up in English and German. The essential character of Indirect Discourse is, that the language of some other person than the writer or speaker is compressed into a kind of Substantive Clause, the verb of the main clause becoming Infinitive, while modifying clauses, as well as all hortatory forms of speech, take the Subjunctive. The person of the verb necessarily conforms to the new relation of persons. The construction of Indirect Discourse, however, is not limited to reports of the language of some person other than the speaker; it may be used to express what any one--whether the speaker or some one else--says, thinks, or perceives, whenever that which is said, thought, or perceived is capable of being expressed in the form of a complete sentence. For anything that can be said etc. can also be reported indirectly as well as directly. The use of the Infinitive in the main clause undoubtedly comes from its use as a case-form to complete or modify the action expressed by the verb of saying and its object together. This object in time came to be regarded as, and in fact to all intents became, the subject of the infinitive. A transition state is found in Sanskrit, which, though it has no indirect discourse proper, yet allows an indirect predication after verbs of saying and the like by means of a predicative apposition, in such expressions as "The maids told the king [that] his daughter [was] bereft of her senses.’Äù The simple form of indirect statement with the accusative and infinitive was afterwards amplified by introducing dependent or modifying clauses; and in Latin it became a common construction, and could be used to report whole speeches etc., which in other languages would have the direct form. (Compare the style of reporting speeches in English, where only the person and tense are changed.) The Subjunctive in the subordinate clauses of Indirect Discourse has no significance except to make more distinct the fact that these clauses are subordinate; consequently no direct connection has been traced between them and the uses of the mood in simple sentences. It is probable that the subjunctive in indirect questions (Sect: 574), in informal indirect discourse (Sect: 592), and in clauses of the integral part (Sect: 593) represents the earliest steps of a movement by which the subjunctive became in some degree a mood of subordination. The Subjunctive standing for hortatory forms of speech in Indirect Discourse is simply the usual hortatory subjunctive, with only a change of person and tense (if necessary), as in the reporter's style. SECTION: #578. A Direct Quotation gives the exact words of the original speaker or writer (Oratio Recta). An Indirect Quotation adapts the words of the speaker or writer to the construction of the sentence in which they are quoted (èå rátió Oblíqua). NOTE.--The term Indirect Discourse ( órátió oblíqua) is used in two senses. In the wider sense it includes all clauses--of whatever kind--which express the words or thought of any person indirectly, that is, in a form different from that in which the person said the words or conceived the thought. In the narrower sense the term Indirect Discourse is restricted to those cases in which some complete proposition is cited in the form of an Indirect Quotation, which may be extended to a narrative or an address of any length, as in the speeches reported by Caesar and Livy. In this book the term is used in the restricted sense. SECTION: #579. Verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving,govern the Indirect Discourse. NOTE.-- Inquam, said I (etc.) takes the Direct Discourse except in poetry. Declaratory Sentences in Indirect Discourse SECTION: #580. In Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratory Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive:
The verb of saying etc. is often not expressed, but implied in some word or in the general drift of the sentence:
The verb negó, deny, is commonly used in preference to dícó with a negative:
Verbs of promising, hoping, expecting, threatening, swearing, and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse, contrary to the English idiom:
NOTE.--These verbs, however, often take a simple Complementary Infinitive (Sect: 456) So regularly in early Latin (except spéró):
Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of saying, or as verbs of commanding, effecting, and the like. These take as their object either an Infinitive with subject accusative or a Substantive clause of Purpose or Result, according to the sense. 1. Infinitive with Subject Accusative (Indirect Discourse): --
2. Subjunctive (Substantive Clause of Purpose or Result):
NOTE.--The infinitive with subject accusative in this construction is Indirect Discourse, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive sometimes found with these verbs instead of a subjunctive clause (Sect: 563. d). SECTION: #581. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is regularly expressed in Indirect Discourse, even if it is wanting in the direct:
NOTE 1.--But the subject is often omitted if easily understood:
NOTE 2.--After a relative, or quam (than), if the verb would be the same as that of the main clause, it is usually omitted, and its subject is attracted into the accusative:
NOTE 3.--In poetry, by a Greek idiom, a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the indirect discourse sometimes agrees with the subject of the main verb:
SECTION: #582. When the verb of saying etc. is passive, the construction may be either Personal or Impersonal. But the Personal construction is more common and is regularly used in the tenses of incomplete action:
NOTE.--The poets and later writers extend the personal use of the passive to verbs which are not properly verba sentiendí etc.: as,-- colligor dominae placuisse (Ov. Am. 2.6.61), it is gathered [from this memorial] that I pleased my mistress. In the compound tenses of verbs of saying etc., the impersonal construction is more common, and with the gerundive is regular:
NOTE.--An indirect narrative begun in the personal construction may be continued with the Infinitive and Accusative (as De Or. 2.299; Liv. 5.41.9). 1 Such are: (1) knowing, sció, cógnóscó, compertum habeó, etc.; (2) thinking, putó, exístimó, arbitror, etc.; (3) telling, dícó, núntió, referó, polliceor, prómittó, certiórem fació, etc.; (4) perceiving, sentió, comperió, videó, audió, etc. So in general any word that denotes thought or mental and visual perception or their expression may govern the Indirect Discourse. 2 Compare the Greek aorist infinitive after similar verbs. Declaratory Sentences in Indirect Discourse SECTION: #583. A Subordinate Clause merely explanatory, or containing statements which are regarded as true independently of the quotation, takes the Indicative:
NOTE.--Such a clause in the indicative is not regarded as a part of the Indirect Discourse; but it often depends merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he shall use the Indicative or the Subjunctive (cf. Sect: 591-593). A subordinate clause in Indirect Discourse occasionally takes the Indicative when the fact is emphasized:
Clauses introduced by a relative which is equivalent to a demonstrative with a conjunction are not properly subordinate, and hence take the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (see Sect: 308. f):
NOTE.--Really subordinate clauses occasionally take the accusative and infinitive. as,-- quem ad modum sí nón dédátur obses pró ruptó foedus sé habitúrum, síc déditam inviolátam ad suós remissúrum (Liv. 2.13) , [he says] as in case the hostage is not given up he shall consider the treaty as broken, so if given up he will return her unharmed to her friends. The infinitive construction is regularly continued after a comparative with quam:
NOTE.--The subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam (see Sect: 535. c). Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse SECTION: #584. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitiveis used in Indirect Discourse, according as the time indicated is present, past, or future with reference to the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect Discourse is introduced:
All varieties of past time are usually expressed in Indirect Discourse by the Perfect Infinitive, which may stand for the Imperfect, the Perfect, or the Pluperfect Indicative of the Direct. NOTE.--Continued or repeated action in past time is sometimes expressed by the Present Infinitive, which in such cases stands for the Imperfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse and is often called the Imperfect Infinitive. This is the regular construction after meminí when referring to a matter of actual experience or observation: as,-- té meminí haec dícere, I remember your saying this (that you said this). [Direct: díxistí or dícébás.] The present infinitive posse often has a future sense:
1 For various ways of expressing the Future Infinitive, see Sect: 164. 3. c. Tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse SECTION: #585. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse follow the rule for the Sequence of Tenses (Sect: 482). They depend for their sequence on the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect Discourse is introduced. Thus in the sentence, díxit sé Rómam itúrum ut cónsulem vidéret, he said he should go to Rome in order that he might see the consul, vidéret follows the sequence of díxit without regard to the Future Infinitive, itúrum [ esse], on which it directly depends. NOTE.--This rule applies to the subjunctive in subordinate clauses, to that which stands for the imperative etc. (see examples, Sect: 588), and to that in questions (Sect: 586). A subjunctive depending on a Perfect Infinitive is often in the Imperfect or Pluperfect, even if the verb of saying etc. is in a primary tense (cf. Sect: 485. j); so regularly when these tenses would have been used in Direct Discourse:
NOTE 1.--The proper sequence may be seen, in each case, by turning the Perfect Infinitive into that tense of the Indicative which it represents. Thus, if it stands for an imperfect or an historical perfect, the sequence will be secondary; if it stands for a perfect definite, the sequence may be either primary or secondary (Sect: 485. a). NOTE 2.--The so-called imperfect infinitive after meminí (Sect: 584. a. N.) takes the secondary sequence: as,-- ad mé adíre quósdam meminí, quí dícerent (Fam. 3.10.6) , I remember that some persons visited me, to tell me, etc. The Present and Perfect Subjunctive are often used in dependent clauses of the Indirect Discourse even when the verb of saying etc. is in a secondary tense:
NOTE.--This construction comes from the tendency of language to refer all time in narration to the time of the speaker ( repraesentátió). In the course of a long pas sage in the Indirect Discourse the tenses of the subjunctive often vary, sometimes following the sequence, and sometimes affected by repraesentátió. Examples may be seen in B. G. 1.13, 7.20, etc. Certain constructions are never affected by repraesentátió. Such are the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive with cum temporal, antequam, and priusquam. Questions in Indirect Discourse SECTION: #586. A Question in Indirect Discourse may be either in the Subjunctive or in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. A real question, asking for an answer, is generally put in the Subjunctive; a rhetorical question, asked for effect and implying its own answer, is put in the Infinitive:
NOTE 1.--No sharp line can be drawn between the Subjunctive and the Infinitive in questions in the Indirect Discourse. Whether the question is to be regarded as rhetorical or real often depends merely on the writer's point of view:
NOTE 2.--Questions coming immediately after a verb of asking are treated as Indirect Questions and take the Subjunctive (see Sect: 574). This is true even when the verb of asking serves also to introduce a passage in the Indirect Discourse. The question may be either real or rhetorical. See quaesívit, etc. ( Liv. 37.15). For the use of tenses, see Sect: 585. SECTION: #587. A Deliberative Subjunctive (Sect: 444) in the Direct Discourse is always retained in the Indirect:
Commands in Indirect Discourse SECTION: #588. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse:
This rule applies not only to the Imperative of the direct discourse, but to the Hortatory and the Optative Subjunctive as well. NOTE 1.--Though these subjunctives stand for independent clauses of the direct discourse, they follow the rule for the sequence of tenses, being in fact dependent on the verb of saying etc. (cf. Sect: 483, 585). NOTE 2.--A Prohibition in the Indirect Discourse is regularly expressed by né with the present or imperfect subjunctive, even when nólí with the infinitive would be used in the Direct: as,-- né perturbárentur (B. G. 7.29) , do not (he said) be troubled. [Direct: nólíte perturbárí. But sometimes nóllet is found in Indirect Discourse.] Conditions in Indirect Discourse SECTION: #589. Conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are expressed as follows: 1. The Protasis, being a subordinate clause, is always in the Subjunctive. 2. The Apodosis, if independent and not hortatory or optative, is always in some form of the Infinitive. The Present Subjunctive in the apodosis of less vivid future conditions (Sect: 516. b) becomes the Future Infinitive like the Future Indicative in the apodosis of more vivid future conditions. Thus there is no distinction between more and less vivid future conditions in the Indirect Discourse. Examples of Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse are:/p>
1. Simple Present Condition (Sect: 515):
2. Simple Past Condition (Sect: 515):
3. Future Conditions (Sect: 516):
In changing a Condition contrary to fact (Sect: 517) into the Indirect Discourse, the following points require notice: 1. The Protasis always remains unchanged in tense. 2. The Apodosis, if active, takes a peculiar infinitive form, made by combining the Participle in -è ´rus with fuisse. 3. If the verb of the Apodosis is passive or has no supine stem, the periphrasis futúrum fuisse ut (with the Imperfect Subjunctive) must be used. 4. An Indicative in the Apodosis becomes a Perfect Infinitive. Examples are:
NOTE 1.--In Indirect Discourse Present Conditions contrary to fact are not distinguished in the apodosis from Past Conditions contrary to fact, but the protasis may keep them distinct. NOTE 2.--The periphrasis futúrum fuisse ut is sometimes used from choice when there is no necessity for resorting to it, but not in Caesar or Cicero. NOTE 3.--Very rarely the Future Infinitive is used in the Indirect Discourse to express the Apodosis of a Present Condition contrary to fact. Only four or five examples of this use occur in classic authors: as,-- Titurius clámábat sí Caesar adesset neque Carnutés, etc., neque Eburónés tantá cum contemptióne nostra ad castra ventúrós esse (B. G. 5.29) , Titurius cried out that if Caesar were present, neither would the Carnutes, etc., nor would the Eburones be coming to our camp with such contempt, [Direct: sí adesset ... venírent.] SECTION: #590. The following example illustrates some of the foregoing principles in a connected address: Sí pácem populus Rómánus cum Helvétiís faceret, in eam partem itúrós atque ibi futúrós Helvétiós, ubi eós Caesar cónstituisset atque esse voluisset: sín belló persequí persevéráret, reminíscerétur et veteris incommodí populí Rómání, et prístinae virtútis Helvétiórum. Quod impróvísó únum págum adortus esset, cum eí quí flúmen tránsíssent suís auxilium ferre nón possent, né ob eam rem aut suae mágnó opere virtútí tribueret, aut ipsós déspiceret: sé ita á patribus máióribusque suís didicisse, ut magis virtúte quam doló contenderent, aut ínsidiís níterentur. Quá ré né committeret, ut is locus ubi cónstitissent ex calamitáte populí Rómání et internecióne exercitús nómen caperet, aut memoriam próderet. -- B. G. 1.13. Sí pácem populus Rómánus cum Helvétiís faciet, in eam partem íbunt atque ibi erunt Helvétií, ubi eós tú cónstitueris atque esse volueris: sín belló persequí persevérábis, reminíscere [ inquit] et veteris incommodí populí Rómání, et prístinae virtútis Helvétiórum. Quod impróvísó únum págum adortus es, cum eí quí flúmen tránsierant suís auxilium ferre nón possent, né ob eam rem aut tuae mágnó opere virtútí tribueris, aut nós déspexeris: nós ita á patribus máióribusque nostrís didicimus, ut magis virtúte quam doló contendámus, aut ínsidiís nítámur. Quá ré nólí committere, ut híc locus ubi cónstitimus ex calamitáte populí Rómání et internecióne exercitús nómen capiat, aut memoriam pródat. SECTION: #591. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive:/p>
1. When it expresses the thought of some other person than the speaker or writer (Informal Indirect Discourse), or 2. When it is an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equivalent Infinitive (Attraction). 1 See note on Indirect Discourse (Sect: 577). Informal Indirect Discourse SECTION: #592. A Subordinate Clause takes the Subjunctive when it expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or speaker: 1. When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, a command, or a question, expressed indirectly, though not strictly in the form of Indirect Discourse:
2. When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb of saying, or some modifier of it:
3. When a reason or an explanatory fact is introduced by a relative or by quod (rarely quia) (see Sect: 540):
NOTE.--Under this head even what the speaker himself thought under other circumstances may have the Subjunctive. So also with quod even the verb of saying may be in the Subjunctive (Sect: 540. N.2). Here belong also nón quia, nón quod, introducing a reason expressly to deny it. (See Sect: 540. N.3.) ISubjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction) SECTION: #593. A clause depending upon a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an integral part of that clause:
But a dependent clause may be closely connected grammatically with a Subjunctive or Infinitive clause, and still take the Indicative, if it is not regarded as a necessary logical part of that clause:
NOTE 1.--The use of the Indicative in such clauses sometimes serves to emphasize the fact, as true independently of the statement contained in the subjunctive or infinitive clause. But in many cases no such distinction is perceptible. NOTE 2.--It is often difficult to distinguish between Informal Indirect Discourse and the Integral Part. Thus in imperávit ut ea fierent quae opus essent, essent may stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse, being a part of the thought, but not a part of the order; or it may stand for erunt, and then will be Integral Part, being a part of the order itself. The difficulty of making the distinction in such cases is evidence of the close relationship between these two constructions. SECTION: #594. 1. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in Case (Sect: 282). 2. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case (Sect: 286). 3. Superlatives (more rarely Comparatives) denoting order and succession--also medius, ( céterus), reliquus--usually designate not what object, but what part of it, is meant (Sect: 293). 4. The Personal Pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that in -um being used partitively, and that in - í oftenest objectively (Sect: 295. b). 5. The Reflexive Pronoun ( sé), and usually the corresponding possessive ( suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause (Sect: 299). 6. To express Possession and similar ideas the Possessive Pronouns must be used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pronouns (Sect: 302. a). 7. A Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective implying possession may take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and case with an implied noun or pronoun (Sect: 302. e). 8. A Relative Pronoun agrees with its Antecedent in Gender and Number, but its Case depends on its construction in the clause in which it stands (Sect: 305). 9. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person (Sect: 316). 10. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs (Sect: 321). 11. A Question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed by adding the enclicic - ne to the emphatic word (Sect: 332). 12. When the enclitic - ne is added to a negative word,--as in nónne,-- an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a negative answer (Sect: 332. b). 13. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative (Sect: 339). 14. The Vocative is the case of direct address (Sect: 340). 15. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive (Sect: 342). 16. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to which an object, quality, feeling, or action belongs (Sect: 343). 17. The genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a thing consists (Sect: 344). 18. The genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when the quality is modified by an adjective (Sect: 345). 19. Words denoting a part are followed by the Genitive of the whole to which the part belongs (Partitive Genitive, Sect: 346). 20. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the Genitive of the object (Objective Genitive, Sect: 348). 21. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites; participles in -ns when used as adjectives; and verbals in -áx, govern the Genitive (Sect: 349. a, b, c). 22. Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accusative or the Genitive of the object (Sect: 350). 23. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the person a Genitive of the thing (Sect: 351). 24. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take the Genitive of the charge or penalty (Sect: 352). 25. The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected by an action (Indirect Object, Sect: 361). 26. Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries; also, to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare, take the Dative (Sect: 367). 27. Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pró, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative of the indirect object (Sect: 370). 28. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession (Sect: 373). 29. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive, to denote the person on whom the necessity rests (Sect: 374). 30. The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but on the general meaning of the sentence (Dative of Reference, Sect: 376). 31. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative (especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation ( Sect: 381). 32. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another Dative of the person or thing affected (Sect: 382). 33. The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few adverbs) of fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites (Sect: 384). 34. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative (Sect: 387). 35. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other manner (Cognate Accusative, Sect: 390). 36. Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct object (Sect: 393). 37. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally governed by the preposition (Sect: 394). 38. Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two Accusatives, one of the Person, and the other of the Thing (Sect: 396). 39. The subject of an Infinitive is in the Accusative (Sect: 397. e). 40. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are expressed by the Accusative (Sect: 424. c, 425). 41. Words signifying separation or privation are followed by the Ablative (Ablative of Separation, Sect: 400). 42. The Ablative, usually with a preposition, is used to denote the source from which anything is derived or the material of which it consists (Sect: 403). 43. The Ablative, with or without a preposition, is used to express cause (Sect: 404). 44. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by the Ablative with á or ab (Sect: 405). 45. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Ablative signifying than (¬ ß 406). 46. The Comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case (Sect: 407). 47. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action (Sect: 409). 48. The deponents, útor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vescor, with several of their compounds, govern the Ablative (Sect: 410). 49. Opus and úsus, signifying need, are followed by the Ablative (Sect: 411). 50. The manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative, usually with cum unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun (Sect: 412). 51. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with cum (Sect: 413). 52. With Comparatives and words implying comparison the Ablative is used to denote the degree of difference (Sect: 414). 53. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an adjective or genitive Modifier (Sect: 415). 54. The price of a thing is put in the Ablative (Sect: 416). 55. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which anything is or is done (Sect: 418). 56. The adjectives dígnus and indígnus take the Ablative (Sect: 418. b). 57. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may be put in the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an action (Ablative Absolute, Sect: 419).
58. Time when, or within which, is denoted by the Ablative; time how long by the Accusative (Sect: 423). 59. Relations of Place are expressed as follows:
60. With names of towns and small islands, and with domus and rús, the relations of place are expressed as follows:
61. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense to express an exhortation, a command, or a concession. (Sect: 439, 440). 62. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a wish. The present tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as unaccomplished in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in past time (Sect: 441). 63. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doubt, indignation, or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done (Deliberative Subjunctive, Sect: 444). 64. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action as possible or conceivable (Sect: 446). 65. The Imperative is used in commands and entreaties (Sect: 448). 66. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by nólí with the Infinitive, (2) by cavé with the Present Subjunctive, (3) by né with the Perfect Subjunctive ( Sect: 450). 67. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may be used with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Apposition with the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative (Sect: 452). 68. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their meaning take the Infinitive without a subject accusative (Complementary Infinitive, Sect: 456). 69. The Infinitive, with subject accusative, is used with verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving (Indirect Discourse, see Sect: 459). 70. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the Nominative (Historical Infinitive, Sect: 463). 71. SEQUENCE OF TENSES. In complex sentences, a primary tense in the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect Subjunctive in the dependent clause; a secondary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect (Sect: 483). 72. Participles denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the time of the verb in their clause (Sect: 489). 73. The Gerund and the Gerundive are used, in the oblique cases, in many of the constructions of nouns (Sect: 501-507). 74. The Supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to express Purpose (Sect: 509). 75. The Supine in -ú is used with a few adjectives and with the nouns fás, nefás, and opus, to denote Specification (¬ ß 510). 76. Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum ut, introducing a Proviso, take the Subjunctive (Sect: 528). 77. Final clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut ( utí), negative né ( ut né), or by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb (Sect: 531). 78. A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to indicate a characteristic of the antecedent, especially where the antecedent is otherwise undefined (Sect: 535). 79. Dígnus, indígnus, aptus, and idóneus, take a Subjunctive clause with a relative (rarely with ut) (Sect: 535. f). 80. Clauses of Result take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so that (negative, ut nón), or by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb (Sect: 537). 81. The Causal Particles quod, quia, and quoniam take the Indicative when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or speaker; the Subjunctive when the reason is given on the authority of another (Sect: 540). 82. The particles postquam (posteáquam), ubi, ut ( ut prímum, ut semel), simul atque ( simul ac, or simul alone) take the Indicative (usually in the perfect or the historical present) (¬ ß 543). 83. A Temporal clause with cum, when, and some past tense of the Indicative dates or defines the time at which the action of the main verb occurred (Sect: 545). 84. A Temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive describes the circumstances that accompanied or preceded the action of the main verb (Sect: 546). 85. Cum Causal or Concessive takes the Subjunctive (Sect: 549).
86. In Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratory Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive (Sect: 580). 87. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitive is used in Indirect Discourse, according as the time indicated is present, past, or future with reference to the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect Discourse is introduced (Sect: 584). 88. In Indirect Discourse a real question is generally put in the Subjunctive; a rhetorical question in the Infinitive (Sect: 586). 89. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse (Sect: 588). 90. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive when it expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or speaker (Informal Indirect Discourse, Sect: 592). 91. A clause depending on a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an integral part of that clause (Attraction, Sect: 593).
1 The subjunctive in this use is of the same nature as the subjunctive in the main clause. A dependent clause in a clause of purpose is really a part of the purpose, as is seen from the use of should and other auxiliaries in English. In a result clause this is less clear, but the result construction is a branch of the characteristic (Sect: 534), to which category the dependent clause in this case evidently belongs when it takes the subjunctive. SECTION: #595. Latin differs from English in having more freedom in the arrangement of words for the purpose of showing the relative importance of the ideas in a sentence. SECTION: #596. As in other languages, the Subject tends to stand first, the Predicate last. Thus,--
NOTE.--This happens because, from the speaker's ordinary point of view, the subject of his discourse is the most important thing in it, as singled out from all other things to be spoken of. There is in Latin, however, a special tendency to place the verb itself last of all, after all its modifiers. But many writers purposely avoid the monotony of this arrangement by putting the verb last but one, followed by some single word of the predicate. SECTION: #597. In connected discourse the word most prominent in the speaker's mind comes first, and so on in order of prominence. This relative prominence corresponds to that indicated in English by a graduated stress of voice (usually called emphasis). The difference in emphasis expressed by difference in order of words is illustrated in the following passages:
NOTE.--This stress or emphasis, however, in English does not necessarily show any violent contrast to the rest of the words in the sentence, but is infinitely varied, constantly increasing and diminishing, and often so subtle as to be unnoticed except in careful study. So, as a general rule, the precedence of words in a Latin sentence is not mechanical, but corresponds to the prominence which a good speaker would mark by skilfully managed stress of voice. A Latin written sentence, therefore, has all the clearness and expression which could be given to a spoken discourse by the best actor in English. Some exceptions to the rule will be treated later. The first chapter of Caesar's Gallic War, if rendered so as to bring out as far as possible the shades of emphasis, would run thus: GAUL,in the widest sense, is divided into three parts,which are inhabited(as follows): oneby the Belgians, anotherby the Aquitani, the third by a people called in their ownlanguage Celts, in ours Gauls. THESE in their language,institutions, and laws are all of them 10 different. The GAULS 11 (proper) are separated 12 from the Aquitani by the river Garonne, from the Belgians by the Marne and Seine. Of THESE 13 (TRIBES) the bravest of all 14 are the Belgians, for the reason that they live farthest 15 awayfrom the CIVILIZATION and REFINEMENT of the Province, and because they are LEAST 16 of all of them subject to the visits of traders, 17 and to the (consequent) importation of such things as 18 tend to soften 19 their warlike spirit; and are also nearest 20 to the Germans, who live across the Rhine, 21 and with whom they are incessantly 22 at war. For the same reason the HELVETIANS, as well, are superior to all the other Gauls in valor, because they are engaged in almost daily battles with the Germans, either defending their own boundaries from them, or themselves making war on those of the Germans. Of ALL THIS country, one part--the one which, as has been said, the Gauls (proper) occupy--BEGINS at the river Rhone. Its boundaries are the river Garonne, the ocean, and the confines of the Belgians. It even REACHES on the side of the Sequani and Helvetians the river Rhine. Its general direction is towards the north. The BELGIANS begin at the extreme limits of Gaul; they reach (on this side) as far as the lower part of the Rhine. They spread to the northward and eastward. AQUITANIA extends from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and that part of the ocean that lies towards Spain. It runs off westward and northward. Gallia est omnis dívísa in partís trís, quárum únam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquítání, tertiam quí ipsórum linguá Celtae, nostrá Gallí appellantur. Hí omnés linguá, ínstitútís, légibus inter sé differunt. Gallós ab Aquítánís Garumna flúmen, á Belgís Mátrona et Séquana dívidit. Hórum omnium fortissimí sunt Belgae, proptereá quod á cultú atque húmánitáte próvinciae longissimé absunt, miniméque ad eós mercátórés saepe commeant atque ea quae ad efféminandós animós pertinent important, proximíque sunt Germánís, quí tráns Rhénum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Quá dé causá Helvétií quoque reliquós Gallós virtúte praecédunt, quod feré cotídiánís proeliís cum Germánís contendunt, cum aut suís fínibus eós prohibent, aut ipsí in eórum fínibus bellum gerunt. Eórum úna pars, quam Gallós obtinére dictum est, initium capit á flúmine Rhodanó; continétur Garumná flúmine, Oceanó, fínibus Belgárum; attingit etiam ab Séquanís et Helvétiís flúmen Rhénum; vergit ad septentriónés. Belgae ab extrémís Galliae fínibus oriuntur: pertinent ad ínferiórem partem flúminis Rhéní; spectant in septentriónem et orientem sólem. Aquítánia á Garumná flúmine ad Pyrénaeós montís et eam partem Oceaní quae est ad Hispániam pertinet; spectat inter occásum sólis et septentriónés. The more important word is never placed last for emphasis. The apparent cases of this usage (when the emphasis is not misconceived) are cases where a word is added as an afterthought, either real or affected, and so has its position not in the sentence to which it is appended, but, as it were, in a new one. .WORD .ORDER IN LATIN SECTION: #598. The main rules for the .Order of Words are as follows: In any phrase the determining and most significant word comes first: 1. Adjective and Noun:
2. Word with modifying case:
Numeral adjectives, adjectives of quantity, demonstrative, relative, and interrogative pronouns and adverbs, tend to precede the word or words to which they belong:
NOTE.--This happens because such words are usually emphatic; but often the words connected with them are more so, and in such cases the pronouns etc. yield the emphatic place:
When sum is used as the Substantive verb (Sect: 284. b), it regularly stands first, or at any rate before its subject:
The verb may come first, or have a prominent position, either (1) because the idea in it is emphatic; or (2) because the predication of the whole statement is emphatic; or (3) the tense only may be emphatic:
Often the connection of two emphatic phrases is brought about by giving the precedence to the most prominent part of each and leaving the less prominent parts to follow in inconspicuous places:
Antithesis between two pairs of ideas is indicated by placing the pairs either (1) in the same order (anaphora) or (2) in exactly the opposite order (chiasmus):
NOTE.--Chiasmus is very common in Latin, and often seems in fact the more inartificial construction. In an artless narrative one might hear, "The women were all drowned, they saved the men."
A modifier of a phrase or some part of it is often embodied within the phrase (cf. a):
A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by which the attribute of one pair comes between the parts of the other (synchysis):
NOTE.--This is often joined with chiasmus: as,-- arma nóndum expiátís úncta cruóribus ( id. 2.1.5). Frequently unimportant words follow in the train of more emphatic ones with which they are grammatically connected, and so acquire a prominence out of proportion to their importance:
The copula is generally felt to be of so little importance that it may come in anywhere where it sounds well; but usually under cover of more emphatic words:
Many expressions have acquired an invariable order:
NOTE.--These had, no doubt, originally an emphasis which required such an arrangement, but in the course of time have changed their shade of meaning. Thus, senátus populusque Rómánus originally stated with emphasis the official bodies, but became fixed so as to be the only permissible form of expression. The Romans had a fondness for emphasizing persons, so that a name or a pronoun often stands in an emphatic place:
Kindred words often come together ( figúra etymologica):
SECTION: #599. The following are special rules of arrangement: The negative precedes the word it especially affects; but if it belongs to no one word in particular, it generally precedes the verb; if it is especially emphatic, it begins the sentence. (See example, 598. f. N.) Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence or clause; enim, autem, véró, quoque, never first, but usually second, sometimes third if the second word is emphatic; quidem never first, but after the emphatic word; igitur usually second; né ... quidem include the emphatic word or words. Inquam, inquit, are always used parenthetically, following one or more words. So often crédó, opínor, and in poetry sometimes precor. (1) Prepositions (except tenus and versus) regularly precede their nouns; (2) but a monosyllabic preposition is often placed between a noun and its adjective or limiting genitive:
In the arrangement of clauses, the Relative clause more often comes first in Latin, and usually contains the antecedent noun:
Personal or demonstrative pronouns tend to stand together in the sentence:
Structure of the Period SECTION: #600. Latin, unlike modern languages, expresses the relation of words to each other by inflection rather than by position. Hence its structure not only admits of great variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favorable to that form of sentence which is called a Period. In a period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a whole, and is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word. An English sentence does not often exhibit this form of structure. It was imitated, sometimes with great skill and beauty, by many of the earlier writers of English prose; but its effect is better seen in poetry, as in the following passage:
But in argument or narrative, the best English writers more commonly give short clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one thing by itself. In Latin, on the contrary, the story or argument is viewed as a whole; and the logical relation among all its parts is carefully indicated. SECTION: #601. In the structure of the Period, the following rules are to be observed: In general the main subject or object is put in the main clause, not in a subordinate one:
Clauses are usually arranged in the order of prominence in the mind of the speaker; so, usually, cause before result; purpose, manner, and the like, before the act. In coordinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are frequently omitted (asyndeton). In such cases the connection is made clear by some antithesis indicated by the position of words. A change of subject, when required, is marked by the introduction of a pronoun, if the new subject has already been mentioned. But such change is often purposely avoided by a change in structure,--the less important being merged in the more important by the aid of participles or of subordinate phrases:
So the repetition of a noun, or the substitution of a pronoun for it, is avoided unless a different case is required:
The Romans were careful to close a period with an agreeable succession of long and short syllables. Thus,--
NOTE.--In rhetorical writing, particularly in oratory, the Romans, influenced by their study of the Greek orators, gave more attention to this matter than in other forms of composition. Quintilian (ix. 4.72) lays down the general rule that a clause should not open with the beginning of a verse or close with the end of one. SECTION: #602. The poetry of the Indo-European people seems originally to have been somewhat like our own, depending on accent for its metre and disregarding the natural quantity of syllables. The Greeks, however, developed a form of poetry which, like music, pays close attention to the natural quantity of syllables; and the Romans borrowed their metrical forms in classical times from the Greeks. Hence Latin poetry does not depend, like ours, upon accent and rhyme; but is measured, like musical strains, by the length of syllables. Especially does it differ from our verse in not regarding the prose accent of the words, but substituting for that an entirely different system of metrical accent or ictus (see Sect: 611. a). This depends upon the character of the measure used, falling at regular intervals of time on a long syllable or its equivalent. Each syllable is counted as either long or short in Quantity; and a long syllable is generally reckoned equal in length to two short ones (for exceptions, see Sect: 608. c- e). The quantity of radical (or stem) syllables--as of short a in péater or of long a in máter--can be learned only by observation and practice, unless determined by the general rules of quantity. Most of these rules are only arbitrary formulas devised to assist the memory; the syllables being long or short because the ancients pronounced them so. The actual practice of the Romans in regard to the quantity of syllables is ascertained chiefly from the usage of the poets; but the ancient grammarians give some assistance, and in some inscriptions long vowels are distinguished in various ways,-- by the apex, for instance, or by doubling (Sect: 10. e. N.). Since Roman poets borrow very largely from the poetry and mythology of the Greeks, numerous Greek words, especially proper names, make an important part of Latin poetry. These words are generally employed in accordance with the Greek, and not the Latin, laws of quantity. Where these laws vary in any important point, the variations will be noticed in the rules below. SECTION: #603. The following are General Rules of Quantity (cf. Sect: 9-11): 1 GAUL: emphatic as the subject of discourse, as with a title or the like. 2 Divided: opposed to the false conception (implied in the use of omnis) that the country called Gallia by the Romans is one. This appears more clearly from the fact that Caesar later speaks of the Gallí in a narrower sense as distinct from the other two tribes, who with them inhabit Gallia in the wider sense. 3 Parts: continuing the emphasis begun in dívísa. Not three parts as opposed to any other number, but into parts at all. 4 Inhabited: emphatic as the next subject, "The inhabitants of these parts are, etc.’Äù 5 One: given more prominence than it otherwise would have on accountof its close connection with quárum. 6 Another, etc.: opposed to one. 7 Their own, ours: strongly opposed to each other. 8 THESE (tribes): the main subject of discourse again, collecting under one head the names previously mentioned. 9 Language, etc.: these are the most prominent ideas, as giving the striking points which distinguish the tribes. The emphasis becomes natural in English if we say "these have a different language, different institutions, different laws.’Äù 10 All of them: the emphasis on all marks the distributive character of the adjective, as if it were úevery one has its own, etc.’Äù 11 GAULS: emphatic as referring to the Gauls proper in distinction from the other tribes. 12 Separated: though this word contains an indispensable idea in the connection, yet it has a subordinate position. It is not emphatic in Latin, as is seen from the fact that it cannot be made emphatic in English. The sense is: The Gauls lie between the Aquitani on the one side, and the Belgians on the other. 13 Of THESE: the subject of discourse. 14 All: emphasizing the superlative idea in "bravest’Äù; they, as Gauls, are assumed to be warlike, but the most so of all of them are the Belgians. 15 Farthest away: one might expect absunt (are away) to have a more emphatic place, but it is dwarfed in importance by the predominance of the main idea, the effeminating influences from which the Belgians are said to be free. It is not that they live farthest off that is insisted on, but that the civilization of the Province etc., which would soften them, comes less in their way. It is to be noticed also that absunt has already been anticipated by the construction of cultú and still more by longissimé, so that when it comes it amounts only to a formal part of the sentence. Thus,--"because the civilization etc. of the Province (which would soften them) is farthest from them.’Äù 16 LEAST: made emphatic here by a common Latin order, the chiasmus (Sect: 598. f). 17 Traders: the fourth member of the chiasmus, opposed to cultú and húmánitáte. 18 Such things as: the importance of the nature of the importations overshadows the fact that they are imported, which fact is anticipated in traders. 19 Soften: cf. what is said in note 15, p. 394. They are brave because they have less to soften them, their native barbarity being taken for granted. 20 Nearest: the same idiomatic prominence as in noteabove, but varied by a special usage combining chiasmus and anaphora (Sect: 598. f). 21 Across the Rhine: i.e. and so are perfect savages. 22 Incessantly: the continuance of the warfare becomes the all-important idea, as if it were "and not a day passes in which they are not at war with them.’Äù 23 So called from the Greek letter ch (chi), on account of the criss-cross arrangement of the words. Thus, a b SECTION: #604. The Quantity of Final Syllables is as follows: Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long: as, mé, tú, hí, né. 1. The attached particles -ne, -que, -ve, -ce, -pte, and re- (ré ïd-) are short; sé- (séd-) and dé ´- are long. Thus, sécédit, séditió, exercitumqueredúcit, dímittó. But re- is often long in réligió ( relligió), rétulí ( rettulí), répulí ( reppulí). Nouns and adjectives of one syllable are long: as, sól, ós ( óris), bós, pár, vás ( vásis), vér, vé ´s. Exceptions.--cor, fel, lac, mel, os ( ossis), vas (védis), vir, tot, quot. Most monosyllabic Particles are short: as, in, in, cis, nec. But crás, cúr, én, nón, quín, sín--with adverbs in c: as, híc, húc, síc--are long. Final a in words declined by cases is short, except in the ablative sin gular of the first declension; in all other words final a is long. Thus, eéa stelléa (nominative), cum eá stellá (ablative); frústrá, vocá (imperative), posteá, trígintá. Exceptions.--eiA, ita, quiia, put&put; a (suppose); and, in late use, triginta etc. Final e is short: as in núbe, dúcite, saepé ï. Exceptions.--Final e is long--1. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second declension, with others of like form: as, alté, longé, miseré, aperté, saepissimé. So feré, fermé. But it is short in bene, male; ínferne, superne. 2. In nouns of the fifth declension: as, fidé (also famé), facié, hodié, quáré ( quá ré). 3. In Greek neuters plural of the second declension: as, cété; and in some other Greek words: Phoebé, Circ é, Andromaché, etc. 4. In the imperative singular of the second conjugation: as, vidé. But sometimes cave, habe, tace, vale, vide(cf. Sect: 629. b. 1). Final i is long: as in turrí, fílí, audé ´. Exceptions.--Final i is common in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi; and short in nisi, quasi, sícuti, cui (when making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives: as, Alexi. Final o is common: but long in datives and ablatives; also in nouns of the third declension. It is almost invariably long in verbs before the time of Ovid. Exceptions.- -cito, modo (dummodè è), immo, profecto, ego, duo, cedo(the imperative); so sometimes octo, ílico, etc., particularly in later writers. Final u is long. Final y is short Final as, es, os, are long; final is, as, ys, are short: as, nefás, rúpés, serv ós (accusative), honós; hostis, amícus, Tethys. Exceptions.--1. as is short in Greek plural accusatives: as, lampadéas; and in anéas. 2. es is short in the nominative of nouns of the third declension (lingual) having a short vowel in the stem: as, míles (-é ‚tis), obses (-Àò dis),--except abiés,ariés, pariés, pés; in the present of esse (es, adé ïs); in the preposition penes, and in the plural of Greek nouns: as, hé róes, lampades. 3. os is short in compèès, impèès; in the Greek nominative ending: as, barbitèès; in the old nominative of the second declension: as, servèès (later servus). 4. is in plural cases is long: as in bonís, nóbís, vóbís, omnís (accusative plural). 5. is is long in the verb forms fís, sís, vís (with quívís etc.), velís, málís, nólís, edís; in the second person singular of the present indicative active in the fourth conjugation: as, audís; and sometimes in the forms in - eris (future perfect indicative or perfect subjunctive). 6. us is long in the genitive singular and nominative, accusative, and vocative plural of the fourth declension; and in nouns of the third declension having ú (long) in the stem: as, virtús (- útis), incús (-¬Ø dis). But pecus, -udis. Of other final syllables, those ending in a single consonant are short Thus, améat, amátur; dónec, féac, procul, iubé ar. Exceptions.-- híc (also hé ‚c); alléc; the ablatives illóc, etc.; certain adverbs in -c: as, illíc, istúc; lién, and some Greek nouns: as, áér, aethér, crátér. 1 The quantity of the stem-vowel may be seen in the genitive singular. Perfects and Perfect Participles SECTION: #605. Perfects and Perfect Participles of two syllables have the first syllable long: as, iúví, iútum (iuvó), vídí, vísum (videó); fúgí (fugió); véní (venió). Exceptions.--bibí, dedé ´, fidí, scidí, stetí, stití, tulí; citum, déatum,é ‚tum, litum, quitum, réatum, rutum, séatum, situm, stéatum. In some compounds of stó, státum is found (long), as praestátum. In reduplicated perfects the vowel of the reduplication is short; the vowel of the following syllable is, also, usually short: as, cecidí (céadó), didicí ( discó), pupugé ´ ( pungó), cucurré ´ ( curró), tetendí ( tendó),mèèmèèrdé ´ ( mordeó). But cecídí from caedó, pepédí from pédó. Derivatives SECTION: #606. Rules for the Quantity of Derivatives are: Forms from the same stem have the same quantity: as, éa mó, éamávisté ´; genus, generis. Exceptions.--1. bós, lár, más, pár, pés, sál,--also arbós,--have a long vowel in the nominative, though the stem-vowel is short (cf. genitive bèèvis etc.). 2. Nouns in -or, genitive - óris, have the vowel shortened before the final r: as, honèèr. (But this shortening is comparatively late, so that in early Latin these nominatives are often found long.) 3. Verb-forms with vowel originally long regularly shorten it before final m, r, or t: as, amé ïm, amer, dícerer, amé ït (compare amémus), díceré ït, audit, fit. NOTE.--The final syllable in t of the perfect was long in old Latin, but is short in the classic period. 4. A few long stem-syllables are shortened: as, ácer, éacerbus. So dé-ieró and pé-ieró, weakened from iúró. Forms from the same root often show inherited variations of vowel quantity (see Sect: 17): as, dícó (cf. maledé ‚cus); dúcó (dux, dè ‚cis); fídó (perfé ‚dus) vóx, vócis (vèècó); léx, légis (legó). Compounds retain the quantity of the words which compose them as, oc-cidó (céadó), oc- cídó ( caedó), in-íquus ( aequus). NOTE.-- Greek words compounded with pro have o short: as, prèèphé ta, prèèlèègus. Some Latin compounds of pró have o short: as, pr èèficíscor, prèèfiteor. Compounds with ne vary: as, nefás, negó, nequeó, néquam. SECTION: #607. The essence of Rhythm in poetry is the regular recurrence of syllables pronounced with more stress than those intervening. To produce this effect in its perfection, precisely equal times should occur between the recurrences of the stress. But, in the application of rhythm to words, the exactness of these intervals is sacrificed somewhat to the necessary length of the words; and, on the other hand, the words are forced somewhat in their pronunciation, to produce more nearly the proper intervals of time. In different languages these adaptations take place in different degrees; one language disregarding more the intervals of time, another the pronunciation of the words. The Greek language early developed a very strict rhythmical form of poetry, in which the intervals of time were all-important. The earliest Latin, on the other hand, --as in the Saturnian and Fescennine verse,--was not so restricted. But the purely metrical forms were afterwards adopted from the Greek, and supplanted the native forms of verse. Thus the Latin poetry with which we have to do follows for the most part Greek rules, which require the formal division of words (like music) into measures of equal times, technically called Feet. The strict rhythm was doubtless more closely followed in poetry that was sung than in that which was declaimed or intoned. In neither language, however, is the time perfectly preserved, even in single measures: and there are some cases in which the regularity of the time between the ictuses is disturbed. The Greeks and Romans distinguished syllables of two kinds in regard to the time required for their pronunciation, a long syllable having twice the metrical value of a short one. But it must not be supposed that all long syllables were of equal length, or even that in a given passage each long had just twice the length of the contiguous shorts. The ratio was only approximate at best, though necessarily more exact in singing than in recitation. Nor are longs and shorts the only forms of syllables that are found. In some cases a long syllable was protracted, so as to have the time of three or even of four shorts, and often one long or two shorts were pronounced in less than their proper time, though they were perhaps distinguishable in time from one short (see Sect: 608. c, d). Sometimes a syllable naturally short seems to have been slightly prolonged, so as to represent a long, though in most (not all) cases the apparent irregularity can be otherwise explained. In a few cases, also, a pause takes the place of one or more syllables to fill out the required length of the measure. This could, of course, take place only at the end of a word: hence the importance of Caesura and Diaeresis in prosody (Sect: 611. b, c). Measures SECTION: #608. Rhythm consists of the division of musical sound into equal intervals of time called Measures or Feet. The most natural division of musical time is into measures consisting of either two or three equal parts. But the ancients also distinguished measures of five equal parts. NOTE.--The divisions of musical time are marked by a stress of voice on one or the other part of the measure. This stress is called the Ictus (beat), or metrical accent (see Sect: 611. a). The unit of length in Prosody is one short syllable. This is called a Mora. It is represented by the sign Àò, or in musical notation by the eighth note or quaver A long syllable is regularly equal to two morae, and is represented by the sign ¬ Ø, or by the quarter note or crotchet A long syllable may be protracted, so as to occupy the time of three or four morae. Such a syllable, if equal to three morˆ ¶, is represented by the sign [Figure] (or dotted quarter [Figure] ); if equal to four, by [Figure] (or the half note or minim, [Figure] ). A long syllable may be contracted, so as to take practically the time of a short one. Such a syllable is sometimes represented by the sign >. A short syllable may be contracted so as to occupy less than one mora. A pause sometimes occurs at the end of a verse or a series of verses, to fill up the time. A pause of one mora in a measure is indicated by the sign ^; one of two moraeby the sign [macrcirc]. One or more syllables are sometimes placed before the proper beginning of the measure. Such syllables are called an Anacrúsis or prelude. The anacrusis is regularly equal to the unaccented part of the measure. NOTE.--Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, or chant, with instrumental accompaniment; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or singing. It must be borne in mind that in ancient music--which in this differs widely from modern--the rhythm of the melody was identical with the rhythm of the text. The lyric poetry was to be sung; the poet was musician and composer, as well as author. To this day a poet is said conventionally to "sing.’Äù Thus a correct understanding of the rhythmical structure of the verse gives us the time, though not the tune, to which it was actually sung. The exact time, however, as indicated by the succession of long and short syllables, was varied according to certain laws of so-called "Rhythmic" as will be explained below. In reading ancient verse it is necessary to bear in mind not only the variations in the relative length of syllables, but the occasional pause necessary to fill out the measure; and to remember that the rhythmical accent is the only one of importance, though the words should be distinguished carefully, and the sense preserved. Poetry should not be scanned, but read metrically. SECTION: #612. A single line of poetry--that is, a series of feet set in a recognized order--is called a Verse. NOTE.--Most of the common verses originally consisted of two series (hemistichs), but the joint between them is often obscured. It is marked in Iambic and Trochaie Tetrameter by the Diaeresis, in Dactylic Hexameter by the Caesura. A verse lacking a syllable at the end is called Catalectic, that is, having a pause to fill the measure; when the end syllable is not lacking, the verse is called Acatalectic, and has no such pause. A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before a pause:it is then said to be long by Diastole:
The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long or short (syllaba anceps). Scansion and Elision To divide the verse into its appropriate measures, according to the rules of quantity and versification, is called scanning or scansion ( scánsió, a climbing or advance by steps, from scandó). NOTE.--In reading verse rhythmically, care should be taken to preserve the measure or time of the syllables, but at the same time not to destroy or confuse the words themselves, as is often done m scanning. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word (unless an interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins with a vowel or with h. This is called Elision (bruising). In reading it is usual entirely to suppress elided syllables. Strictly, however, they should be sounded lightly. In early Latin poetry a final syllable ending in s often loses this letter even before a consonant (cf. Sect: 15.7):
NOTE.--Elision is sometimes called by the Greek name Synalè"pha (smearing). Rarely a syllable is elided at the end of a verse when the next verse begins with a vowel: this is called Synapheia (binding). A final m, with the preceding vowel, is suppressed in like manner when the next word begins with a vowel or h: this is called Ecthlipsis (squeezing out):
NOTE 1.--Final m has a feeble nasal sound, so that its partial suppression before the initial vowel of the following word was easy. NOTE 2.--The monosyllables dó, dem, spé, spem, sim, stó, stem, quí (plural), and monosyllabic interjections are never elided; nor is an iambic word elided in dactylic verse. Elision is often evaded by skilful collocation of words. Elision is sometimes omitted when a word ending in a vowel has a special emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This omission is called Hiatus (gaping). NOTE.--The final vowel is sometimes shortened in such cases. 1 The word Verse (versus) signifies a turning back, i.e. to begin again in like manner, as opposed to Prose (prorsus or próversus), which means straight ahead. 2 This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears to be found being caused by the retention of an originally long quantity. 3 The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French poetry, and is sometimes adopted in English, particularly in the older poets: T' inveigle and invite th' unwary sense.--Comus 538. SECTION: #613. A verse receives its name from its dominant or fundamental foot: as, Dactylic, Iambic, Trochaic, Anapè"stic; and from the number of measures (single or double) which it contains: as, Hexameter, Tetrameter, Trimeter, Dimeter. NOTE.--Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic verses are measured not by single feet, but by pairs (dipodia), so that six Iambi make a Trimeter. SECTION: #614. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite number of verses ranged in a fixed order. Many stanzas are named after some eminent poet: as, Sapphic (from Sappho), Alcaic (from Alcaeus), Archilochian (from Archilochus), Horatian (from Horace), and so on. Dactylic Hexameter SECTION: #615. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse, consists theoretically of six dactyls. It may be represented thus: [Figure] NOTE.--The last foot is usually said to be a spondee, but is in reality a trochee standing for a dactyl, since the final syllable is not measured. For any foot, except the fifth, a spondee may be substituted. Rarely a spondee is found in the fifth foot; the verse is then called spondaic and usually ends with a word of four syllables. Thus in Ecl. 4.49the verse ends with incrémentum. The hexameter has regularly one principal cè "sura--sometimes two-- almost always accompanied by a pause in the sense. 1. The principal caesura is usually after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the third foot, dividing the verse into two parts in sense and rhythm. See examples in d. 2. It may also be after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the fourth foot. In this case there is often another caesura in the second foot, so that the verse is divided into three parts: Aen. 5.277. NOTE.--Often the only indication of the principal among a number of caesuras is the break in the sense. A caesura occurring after the first syllable of a foot is called masculine. A caesura occurring after the second syllable of a foot is called feminine (as in the fifth foot of the third and fourth verses in d). A caesura may also be found in any foot of the verse, but a proper caesural pause could hardly occur in the first or sixth. When the fourth foot ends a word, the break (properly a diaeresis) is sometimes improperly called bucolic caesura, from its frequency in pastoral poetry. The first seven verses of the Aeneid, divided according to the foregoing rules, will appear as follows. The principal caesura in each verse is marked by double lines: Arma virumque cano .....etc. 1. The feminine caesura is seen in the following: .-- Aen. 6.131. NOTE.--The Hexameter is thus illustrated in English verse:
Dactylic Hexameter SECTION: #616. The Elegiac Stanza consists of two verses,--a Hexameter followed by a Pentameter. The Pentameter verse is the same as the Hexameter, except that it omits the last half of the third foot and of the sixth foot: [Figure] The Pentameter verse is therefore to be scanned as two half-verses, the second of which always consists of two dactyls followed by a single syllable. The Pentameter has no regular Caesura; but the first half-verse must always end with a word (diè"resis, Sect: 611. c), which is followed by a pause to complete the measure. The following verses will illustrate the forms of the Elegiac Stanza:
NOTE.--The Elegiac Stanza differs widely in character from hexameter verse (of which it is a mere modification) by its division into Distichs, each of which must have its own sense complete. It is employed in a great variety of compositions,--epistolary, amatory, and mournful,--and was especially a favorite of the poet Ovid. It has been illustrated in English verse, imitated from the German:
1 Called pentameter by the old grammarians, who divided it, formally, into five feet (two dactyls or spondees, a spondee, and two anapaests), as follows: [ Figure] 2 The time of this pause, however, may be filled by the protraction of the preceding syllable: [Figure] Other Dactylic Verses SECTION: #617. Other dactylic verses or half-verses are occasionally used by the lyric poets. The Dactylic Tetrameter alternates with the hexameter, forming the Alcmanian Strophe, as follows:
The Dactylic Penthemim (five half-feet) consists of half a pentameter verse. It is used in combination with the Hexameter to form the First Archilochian Strophe:
For the Fourth Archilochian Strophe (Archilochian heptameter, alternating with iambic trimeter catalectic), see Sect: 626. 11. Iambic Trimeter SECTION: #618. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of dramatic dialogue. It consists of three measures, each containing a double Iambus (iambic dipody). The caesura is usually in the third foot. [Figure] NOTE.--The sign [gtbreve] [acutemacr] denotes possible substitution of an irrational spondee (>[acutemacr]) for an iambus (Àò[acutemacr]). The Iambic Trimeter is often used in lyric poetry (1) as an independent system, or (2) alternating with the Dimeter to form the Iambic Strophe, as follows: -Hor. Epod. 17. The last two lines may be thus translated, to show the movement in English: -Hor. Epod. 2. In the stricter form of Iambic Trimeter an irrational spondee (> [acutemacr]) or its equivalent (a cyclic anapaest Àò Àò[acutemacr] or an apparent dactyl > [acutebreve] Àò Sect: 609. e) may be regularly substituted for the first iambus of any dipody A tribrach (À ò [acutebreve] Àò) may stand for an iambus anywhere except in the last place. In the comic poets any of these forms or the proceleusmatic (ÀòÀò [acutebreve] Àò) may be substituted in any foot except the last: The Choliambic (lame Iambic) substitutes a trochee for the last iambus: [Figure]
NOTE.--The verse may also be regarded as trochaic with anacrusis: as,-- [Figure] The Iambic Trimeter Catalectic is represented as follows: [Figure] It is used in combination with other measures (see Sect: 626. 11), and is shown in the following: -Hor. Od. 1.4. or in English:
1 The greater freedom of substitution in the comedy is due to the fact that the verse is regarded as made up of separate feet rather than of dipodies. Other Iambic Measures SECTION: #619. Other forms of Iambic verse are the following: The Iambic Tetrameter Catalectic ( Septénárius). This consists of seven and a half iambic feet, with diaeresis after the fourth and with the same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter:
The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows: [Figure] The Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic ( Octónárius). This consists of right full iambic feet with the same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter. Like the Septenarius it is used in lively dialogue: -Ter. Ph. 720, 721. The Iambic Dimeter. This may be either acatalectic or catalectic. 1. The Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic consists of four iambic feet. It is used in combination with some longer verse (see Sect: 618. a). 2. The Iambic Dimeter Catalectic consists of three and a half iambic feet. It is used only in choruses: Sen. Med. 850-853. NOTE.--Owing to the fact that in modern music each measure begins with a downward beat, some scholars regard all these forms of Iambic verse as Trochaic verse with anacrusis (Sect: 618. c. N.). SECTION: #620. The most common form of Trochaic verse is the Tetrameter Catalectic ( Septénárius), consisting of four dipodies, the last of which lacks a syllable. There is regularly diaeresis after the fourth foot: In musical notation: --Ter. And. 319. In English verse: Tˆcll me nˆ„t in moˆ†rnful nˆ†mbers || lˆ‚fe is bˆ†t an ˆcmpty dreˆ°m.
In the stricter form of the Septenarius substitutions are allowed only in the even feet, but in comedy the tribrach [acutebreve] Àò Àò, or an irrational spondee [acutemacr] >, cyclic dactyl [acutemacr] ÀòÀò, or apparent anapaest [acutebreve] Àò >, may be substituted for any of the first six feet; a tribrach for the seventh: -Pl. Am. 443-446. The metrical scheme of these four verses is as follows: [Figure] The Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic ( Octónárius), consisting of four complete dipodies, occurs in the lyrical parts of comedy. Substitutions as in the Septenarius are allowed except in the last foot. Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric poets, in eombination with other feet, either as whole lines or parts of lines: -Hor Od. 2.18. MIXED MEASURES SECTION: #621. Different measures may be combined in the same verse in two different ways. Either (1) a series of one kind is simply joined to a series of another kind (compare the changes of rhythm not uncommon in modern music); or (2) single feet of other measures are combined with the prevailing measures, in which case these odd feet are adapted by changing their quantity so that they become irrational (see Sect: 609.e). When enough measures of one kind occur to form a series, we may suppose a change of rhythm; when they are isolated, we must suppose adaptation. Of the indefinite number of possible combinations but few are found in Latin poetry. SECTION: #622. The following verses, combining different rhythmical series, are found in Latin lyrical poetry: 1. Greater Archilochian (Dactylic Tetrameter; Trochaic Tripody): Hor. Od. 1.4. NOTE.--It is possible that the dactyls were cyclic; but the change of measure seems more probable. 2. Verse consisting of Dactylic Trimeter catalectic (Dactylic Penthemim); Iambic Dimeter:-Hor. Epod. 11.2. LOGAEIDIC VERSE SECTION: #623. Trochaic verses, containing in regular prescribed positions irrational measures or irrational feet (cf. Sect: 609. e), are called Logoaedic. The principal logoaedic forms are:/p>
1. Logoaedic Tetrapody (four feet): GLYCONIC. 2. Logoaedic Tripody (three feet): PHERECRATIC (often treated as a syncopated Tetrapody Catalectic). 3. Logoaedic Dipody (two feet): this may be regarded as a short Pherecratic. NOTE.--This mixture of irrational measures gives an effect approaching that of prose: hence the name Logoaedic ( logos, aoid<). These measures originated in the Greek lyric poetry, and were adopted by the Romans. All the Roman lyric metres not belonging to the regular iambic, trochaic, dactylic, or Ionic systems, were constructed on the basis of the three forms given above: viz., Logoaedic systems consisting respectively of four, three, and two feet. The so-called Logoaedic Pentapody consists of five feet but is to be regarded as composed of two of the others. SECTION: #624. Each logoaedic form contains a single dactyl,which may be either in the first, second, or third place. The verse may be catalectic or acatalectic: Glyconic Pherecratic [Figure] NOTE.--The shorter Pherecratic (dipody) ([acutemacr]ÀòÀò | [acutemacr]Àò), if catalectic, appears t<
SECTION: #625. The verses constructed upon the several Logoaedic form or models are the following: 1. Glyconic (Second Glyconic, catalectic):- NOTE.--In this and most of the succeeding forms the foot preceding the dactyl is always irrational in Horace, consisting of an irrational spondee (¯>). 2. Aristophanic (First Pherecratic): -Hor. Od. 1.8. NOTE.--It is very likely that this was made equal in time to the preceding <
3. Adonic (First Pherecratic, shortened): [Figure] --Hor. 4. Pherecratic (Second Pherecratic): --Hor. 5. Lesser Asclepiadic (Second Pherecratic with syncope and First Pherecratic catalectic): -Hor. 6. Greater Asclepiadic (the same as 5, with a syncopated Logoaedic Dipody interposed): --Hor. 7. Lesser Sapphic (Logoaedic Pentapody, with dactyl in the third place): Hor. 8. Greater Sapphic (Third Glyconic; First Pherecratic): Hor. 9. Lesser Alcaic (Logoaedic Tetrapody, two irrational dactyls, two trochees): -Hor. 10. Greater Alcaic (Logoaedic Pentapody, catalectic, with anacrusis, and dactyl in the third place,--compare Lesser Sapphic): -Hor. NOTE.--Only the above logoaedic forms are employed by Horace. 11. Phalaecean (Logoaedic Pentapody, with dactyl in the second place): -Catull. xl. 12. Glyconic Pherecratic (Second Glyconic with syncope, and Second Pherecratic): -Catull. xvii. SECTION: #626. The Odes of Horace include nineteen varieties of stanza. These are: 1. Alcaic, consisting of two Greater Alcaics (10), one Trochaic Dimeter with anacrusis, and one Lesser Alcaic (9): -Od. 3.3. (Found in Odes. i. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37; ii. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20; iii. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29; iv. 4, 9, 14, 15.) NOTE.--The Alcaic Strophe is named after the Greek poet Alcaeus of Lesbos, and was a special favorite with Horace, of whose Odes thirty-seven are in this form. It is sometimes called the Horatian Stanza. 2. Sapphic (minor), consisting of three Lesser Sapphics (7) and one Adonic (3): -Od. 1.2. (Found in Od. i. 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38; ii. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 16; iii. 8, 11, 141820, 22, 27; iv. 2, 6, 11; Carm. Saec.) NOTE.--The Sapphic Stanza is named after the poetess Sappho of Lesbos, and was a great favorite with the ancients. It is used by Horace in twenty-five Odes-- more frequently than any other except the Alcaic. 3. Sapphic (major), consisting of one Aristophanic (2) and one Greater Sapphic (8): -Od. 1.8. 4. Asclepiadean I (minor), consisting of Lesser Asclepiadics (5): (Found in Od. i. 1; 3.30; 4.8.) 5. Asclepiadean II, consisting of one Glyconic (1) and one Lesser Asclepiadic (5): -Od. 1.3.
6. Asclepiadean III, consisting of three Lesser Asclepiadics (5) and one Glyconic (1): -Od. 1.24.
7. Asclepiadean IV, consisting of two Lesser Asclepiadics (5), one Pherecratic (4), and one Glyconic (1): -Od. 3.13.
8. Asclepiadean V (major), consisting of Greater Asclepiadics (6): -Od. 1.11.
9. Alcmanian, consisting of Dactylic Hexameter (Sect: 615) alternating with Tetrameter (Sect: 617. a). (Od. i. 7, 28; Epod. 12.) 10. Archilochian I, consisting of a Dactylic Hexameter alternating with a Dactylic Penthemim (see Sect: 617. b). (Od. 4.7.) 11. Archilochian IV, consisting of a Greater Archilochian (heptameter, Sect: 622. 1), followed by Iambic Trimeter Catalectic (Sect: 618. d). The stanza consists of two pairs of verses: Od. 1.4. 12. Iambic Trimeter alone (see Sect: 618). (Epod. 17.) 13. Iambic Strophe (see Sect: 618. a). (Epod. 1-10.) 14. Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Iambic Dimeter: -Epod. 15. (So in Epod. 14.) 15. Dactylic Hexameter with Iambic Trimeter (Sect: 618): -Epod. 16. 16. Verse of Four Lesser Ionics (Sect: 609. c. 2):
17. Iambic Trimeter (Sect: 618); Dactylic Penthemim (Sect: 617. b); Iambic Dimeter: Epod. 11. 18. Dactylic Hexameter; Iambic Dimeter; Dactylic Penthemim (Sect: 617. b): -Epod. 13. 19. Trochaic Dimeter, Iambic Trimeter, each catalectic (see Sect: 620. c). 1 Different Greek poets adopted fixed types in regard to the place of the dacty<
2 The figures refer to the foregoing list (Sect: 625). SECTION: #627. Other lyric poets use other combinations of the abovementioned verses: a. Glyconics with one Pherecratic (both imperfect): -Catull. xxxiv. b. Sapphics, in a series of single lines, closing with an Adonic: -Sen. Herc. Oet. 1600-1606. c. Sapphics followed by Glyconics, of indefinite number ( id. Herc. Fur. 830-874, 875-894). SECTION: #628. Other measures occur in various styles of poetry. Anapaestic (Sect: 609. b. 2) verses of various lengths are found in dramatic poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleusmatic may be substituted for the anapaest: -Pl. Trin. 1115-1119. Bacchiac (Sect: 609. d. 4) verses (five-timed) occur in the dramatic poets,-- very rarely in Terence, more commonly in Plautus,--either in verses of two feet ( Dimeter) or of four (Tetrameter). They are treated very freely, as are all measures in early Latin. The long syllables may be resolved, or the molossus (three longs) substituted: - Pl. Trin. 223-226. Cretic measures (Sect: 609. d. 1) occur in the same manner as the Bacchiac, with the same substitutions. The last foot is usually incomplete: Saturnian Verse. In early Latin is found a rude form of verse, not borrowed from the Greek like the others, but as to the precise nature of which scholars are not agreed. 1. According to one view the verse is based on quantity, is composed of six feet, and is divided into two parts by a caesura before the fourth thesis. Each thesis may consist of a long syllable or of two short ones, each arsis of a short syllable, a long syllable, or two short syllables; but the arsis, except at the beginning of the verse and before the caesura, is often entirely suppressed, though rarely more than once in the same verse: 2. According to another theory the Saturnian is made up, without regard to quantity, of alternating accented and unaccented syllables; but for any unaccented syllable two may be substituted, and regularly are so substituted in the second foot of the verse: dabunt malum metelli / Naevio poetae SECTION: #629. The prosody of the earlier poets differs in several respects from that of the later. At the end of words s, being only feebly sounded, does not make position with a following consonant; it sometimes disappeared altogether. This usage continued in all poets till Cicero's time (Sect: 15. 7). A long syllable immediately preceded or followed by the ictus may be shortened (iambic shortening): In a few isolated words position is often disregarded.Such are ille, immo, inde, iste, èèmnis, né ïmpe, quippe, unde. The original long quantity of some final syllables is retained. 1. The ending -or is retained long in nouns with long stem-vowel (original r- stems or original s-stems): Ovid. Am. 548). 2. The termination - es (-itis) is sometimes retained long, as in mílés, superstés. 3. All verb-endings in -r, -s, and -t may be retained long where the vowel is elsewhere long in inflection: Pl. Truc. 2.4.79). e. Hiatus (Sect: 612. g) is allowed somewhat freely, especially at a pause in the sense, or when there is a change of speaker. Reckoning of Time SECTION: #630. The Roman Year was designated, in earlier times, by the names of the Consuls; but was afterwards reckoned from the building of the City ( ab urbe conditá, annó urbis conditae), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period corresponding with B.C. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce Roman dates to those of the Christian era, the year of the city is to be subtracted from 754: e.g. A.U.C. 691 (the year of Cicero's consulship) corresponds to B.C. 63. Before Caesar's reform of the Calendar (B.C. 46), the Roman year consisted of 355 days: March, May, Quíntílis ( July), and October having each 31 days, February having 28, and each of the remainder 29. As this calendar year was too short for the solar year, the Romans, in alternate years, at the discretion of the pontificés, inserted a month of varying length ( ménsis intercaláris) after February 23, and omitted the rest of February. The " Julian year" by Caesar's reformed Calendar, had 365 days, divided into months as at present. Every fourth year the 24th of February (VI. Kal. Márt.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month: hence the year was called bissextílis. The month Quíntílis received the name Iúlius ( July), in honor of Julius Caesar; and Sextílis was called Augustus (August), in honor of his successor. The Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adoption of the Gregorian Calendar (A.D. 1582), which omits leap-year three times in every four hundred years. SECTION: #631. Dates, according to the Roman Calendar, are reckoned as follows: The first day of the month was called Kalendae ( Calends). NOTE.: i> Kalendae is derived from caláre, to call,--the Calends being the day on which the pontiffs publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Caláta. This they did, originally, from actual observation. On the fifteenth day of March, May, July, and October, but the thirteenth of the other months, were the Idús ( Ides), the day of Full Moon. On the seventh day of March, May, July, and October, but the fifth of the other months, were the Nónae (Nones or ninths). From the three points thus determined, the days of the month were reckoned backwards as so many days before the Nones, the Ides, or the Calends. The point of departure was, by Roman custom, counted in the reckoning, the second day being three days before, etc. This gives the following rule for determining the date: If the given date be Calends, add two to the number of days in the month preceding,--if Nones or Ides, add one to that of the day on which they fall,--and from the number thus ascertained subtract the given date. Thus,--
NOTE.--The name of the month appears as an adjective in agreement with Kalendae, Nónae, Idè ´s. For peculiar constructions in dates, see Sect: 424. g. The days of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as thus ascertained, are given in the following table: January February March April 1. KAL. IáN. KAL. FEB. KAL. MáRTIAE KAL. APRILIS 2. IV. Nón. Ián. IV. Nón. Feb. VI. Nón. Márt. IV. Nón. Apr. 3. III. Nón. Ián. III. Nón. Feb. V. Nón. Márt. III. Nón. Apr. 4. príd. Nón. Ián. príd. Nón. Feb. IV. Nón. Márt. príd. Nón. Apr. 5. N0N. IáN. N0N. FEB. III. Nón. Márt. N0N. APRILéS 6. VIII. Id. Ián. VIII. Id. Feb. príd. Nón. Márt. VIII. Id. Apr. 7. VII. Id. Ián. VII. Id. Feb. NON. MARTIAE VII. Id. Apr. 8. VI. Id. Ián. VI. Id. Feb. VIII. Id. Márt. VI. Id. Apr. 9. V. Id. Ián. V. Id. Feb. VII. Id. Márt. V. Id. Apr. 10. IV. Id. Ián. IV. Id. Feb. VI. Id. Márt. IV. Id. Apr. 11. III. Id. Ián. III. Id. Feb. V. Id. Má rt. III. Id. Apr. 12. príd. Id. Ián. príd. Id. Feb. IV. Id. Márt. príd. Id. Apr. 13. IDèS IáN. IDèS FEB. III. Id. Márt. IDèS APRILIS. 14. XIX. Kal. Feb. XVI. Kal. Mártiás príd. Id. Márt. XVIII. Kal. Máiás. 15. XVIII. Kal. Feb. XV. Kal. Mártiás IDèS MáRTIAE XVII. Kal. Máiás. 16. XVII. Kal. Feb. XIV. Kal. Mártiás XVII. Kal. Aprílís. XVI. Kal. Máiás. 17. XVI. Kal. Feb. XIII. Kal. Mártiás XVI. Kal. Aprílís. XV. Kal. Máiás. 18. XV. Kal. Feb. XII. Kal. Mártiás XV. Kal. Aprílís. XIV. Kal. Máiás. 19. XIV. Kal. Feb. XI. Kal. Mártiás XIV. Kal. Aprílís. XIII. Kal. Máiás. 20. XIII. Kal. Feb. X. Kal. Mártiás XIII. Kal. Aprílís. XII. Kal. Máiás. 21. XII. Kal. Feb. IX. Kal. Mártiás XII. Kal. Aprílís. XI. Kal. Máiás. 22. XI. Kal. Feb. VIII. Kal. Mártiás XI. Kal. Aprílís. X. Kal. Máiás. 23. X. Kal. Feb. VII. Kal. Mártiás X. Kal. Aprílís. IX. Kal. Máiás. 24. IX. Kal. Feb. VI. Kal. Mártiás IX. Kal. Aprílís. VIII. Kal. Máiás. 25. VIII. Kal. Feb. V. Kal. Mártiás VIII. Kal. Aprílís. VII. Kal. Máiás. 26. VII. Kal. Feb. IV. Kal. Mártiás VII. Kal. Aprílís. VI. Kal. Máiás. 27. VI. Kal. Feb. III. Kal. Mártiás VI. Kal. Aprílís. V. Kal. Máiás. 28. V. Kal. Feb. príd. Kal. Mártiás V. Kal. Aprílís. IV. Kal. Máiás. 29. IV. Kal. Feb. [príd. Kal. Márt. in IV. Kal. Aprílís. III. Kal. Máiás. 30. III. Kal. Feb. leap-year, the VI. III. Kal. Aprílís. príd. Kal. Máiás. 31. príd. Kal. Feb. Kal. (24th) being príd. Kal. Aprílís. (So June, Sept., (So Aug., Dec.) counted twice.] (So May, July, Oct.) Nov.) NOTE.--Observe that a date before the Julian Reform (B.C. 46) is to be found not by the above table, but by taking the earlier reckoning of the number of days in the month. SECTION: #632. The money of the Romans was in early times wholly of copper. The unit was the as, which was nominally a pound in weight, but actually somewhat less. It was divided into twelve unciae (ounces). In the third century B.C. the as was gradually reduced to one-half of its original value. In the same century silver coins were introduced,--the dénárius and the séstertius. The denarius = 10 asses; the sestertius = 21/2 asses. SECTION: #633. The Sestertius was probably introduced at a time when the as had been so far reduced that the value of the new coin (2 1/2 asses) was equivalent to the original value of the as. Hence, the Sestertius (usually abbreviated to HS or HS) came to be used as the unit of value, and nummus, coin, often means simply séstertius. As the reduction of the standard went on, the sestertius became equivalent to 4 asses. Gold was introduced later, the aureus being equal to 100 sesterces. The approximate value of these coins is seen in the following table:
NOTE.--The word séstertius is a shortened form of sémis-tertius, the third one, a half. The abbreviation
SECTION: #634. The séstertium (probably originally the genitive plural of séstertius depending on mílle) was a sum of money, not a coin; the word is inflected regularly as a neuter noun: thus, tria séstertia = 150.00. When séstertium is combined with a numeral adverb, centéna mília, hundreds of thousands, is to be understood: thus deciéns séstertium ( deciéns HS) = deciéns centéna mília séstertium = 50,000. Séstertium in this combination may also be inflected: deciéns séstertií, séstertió, etc. In the statement of large sums séstertium is often omitted as well as centéna mília: thus sexágiéns (Rosc. Am. 2) signifies, sexágiéns [ centéna mília séstertium] = 6,000,000 sesterces= 300,000 (nearly). SECTION: #635. In the statement of sums of money in Roman numerals, a line above the number indicates thousands; lines above and at the sides also, hundred-thousands. Thus HS DC=600 séstertií; HS DC= 600,000 séstertií, or 600 séstertia; HS |DC|=60,000,000 séstertií, or 60,000 séstertia. SECTION: #636. The Roman Measures of Length are the following: --
The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet. The iúgerum, or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 ( Roman) feet long and 120 broad; a little less than 2/3 of an English acre. SECTION: #637. The Measures of Weight are:/p>
12 unciae (ounces) =one pound (libra, about 3/4 lb. avoirdupois). Fractional parts (weight or coin) are :/p>
1/12, uncia. 5/12, quíncunx. 3/4, dódr áns. 1/6, sextáns. 1/2, sémis. 5/6, dextáns. 1/4, quadráns. 7/12, septunx. 11/12, deunx. 1/3, triéns. 2/3, bés or bessis. 12/12, as. The Talent (talentum) was a Greek weight ( talanton) = 60 librae. SECTION: #638. The Measures of Capacity are --
1 The two principal theories only are given. There are numerous variations, particularly of the second theory here stated. 2 Before the Latin language was used in literature, it had become much changed by the loss of final consonants and the shortening of final syllables under the influence of accent. In many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the early poets. This tendency was arrested by the study of grammar and by literature, but shows itself again in the Romance languages. 3 Cf. ambó (also a dual, p. 59, footnote), in which the ó is retainedbecause of the length of the first syllable. 4 Scholars are not yet agreed upon the principle or the extent of this irregularity. 5 The extent of this license is still a question among scholars; but in the present state of texts it must sometimes be allowed. SECTION: #639. Many of these terms are pedantic names given by early grammarians to forms of speech used naturally by writers who were not conscious that they were using figures at all--as, indeed, they were not. Thus when one says, "It gave me no little pleasure" he is unconsciously using litotes; when he says, "John went up the street, James down" antithesis; when he says, "High as the sky" hyperbole. Many were given under a mistaken notion of the nature of the usage referred to. Thus méd and téd (Sect: 143. a. N.) were supposed to owe their d to paragoge, súmpsí its p to epenthesis. Such a sentence as "See my coat, how well it fits!"was supposed to be an irregularity to be accounted for by prolepsis. Many of these, however, are convenient designations for phenomena which often occur; and most of them have an historic interest, of one kind or another. SECTION: #640. Grammatical Terms Anacoluthon: a change of construction in the same sentence, leaving the first part broken or unfinished. Anastrophe: inversion of the usual order of words. Apodosis: the conclusion of a conditional sentence (see Protasis). Archaism: an adoption of old or obsolete forms. Asyndeton: omission of conjunctions (Sect: 323. b). Barbarism: adoption of foreign or unauthorized forms. Brachylogy: brevity of expression. Crasis: contraction of two vowels into one (Sect: 15. 3). Ellipsis: omission of a word or words necessary to complete the sense. Enallage: substitution of one word or form for another. Epenthesis: insertion of a letter or syllable. Hellenism: use of Greek forms or constructions. Hendiadys ( hen dia duoin): the use of two nouns, with a conjunction, instead of a single modified noun. Hypallage: interchange of constructions. Hysteron proteron: a reversing of the natural order of ideas. This term was applied to cases where the natural sequence of events is violated in language because the later event is of more importance than the earlier and so comes first to the mind. This was supposed to be an artificial embellishment in Greek, and so was imitated in Latin. It is still found in artless narrative; cf. "Bred and Born in a Brier Bush"(Uncle Remus). Metathesis: transposition of letters in a word. Paragoge: addition of a letter or letters to the end of a word. Parenthesis: insertion of a phrase interrupting the construction. Periphrasis: a roundabout way of expression (circumlocution). Pleonasm: the use of needless words. Polysyndeton: the use of an unnecessary number of copulative conjunctions. Prolepsis: the use of a word in the clause preceding the one where it would naturally appear (anticipation). Protasis: a clause introduced by a conditional expression (if, when, whoever), leading to a conclusion called the Apodosis (Sect: 512). Syncope: omission of a letter or syllable from the middle of a word. Synesis ( cónstrúctió ad sénsum): agreement of words according to the sense, and not the grammatical form (Sect: 280. a). Tmesis: the separation of the two parts of a compound word by other words (cutting). This term came from the earlier separation of prepositions (originally adverbs) from the verbs with which they were afterwards joined; so in per ecastor scítus puer, a very fine boy, egad! As this was supposed to be intentional, it was ignorantly imitated in Latin; as in cere- comminuit -brum ( Ennius). Zeugma: the use of a verb or an adjective with two different words, to only one of which it strictly applies (yoking). SECTION: #641. Rhetorical Figures Allegory: a narrative in which abstract ideas figure as circumstances, events, or persons, in order to enforce some moral truth. Alliteration: the use of several words that begin with the same sound. Analogy: argument from resemblances. Anaphora: the repetition of a word at the beginning of successive clauses (Sect: 598. f). Antithesis: opposition, or contrast of parts (for emphasis: Sect: 598. f). Antonomasia: use of a proper for a common noun, or the reverse:
Aposiopesis: an abrupt pause for rhetorical effect. Catachresis: a harsh metaphor ( abúsió, misuse of words). Chiasmus: a reversing of the order of words in corresponding pairs of phrases (Sect: 598. f). Climax: a gradual increase of emphasis, or enlargement of meaning. Euphemism: the mild expression of a painful or repulsive idea:
Euphony: the choice of words for their agreeable sound. Hyperbaton: violation of the usual order of words. Hyperbole: exaggeration for rhetorical effect. Irony: the use of words which naturally convey a sense contrary to what is meant. Litotes: the affirming of a thing by denying its contrary (Sect: 326. c). Metaphor: the figurative use of words, indicating an object by some resemblance. Metonymy: the use of the name of one thing to indicate some kindred thing Onomatopè"ia: a fitting of sound to sense in the use of words. Oxymoron: the use of contradictory words in the same phrase:
Paronomasia: the use of words of like sound. Prosopopè"ia: personification. Simile: a figurative comparison (usually introduced by like, or as). Synchysis: the interlocked order (Sect: 598. h). Synecdoche: the use of the name of a part for the whole, or the reverse. SECTION: #642. Terms of Prosody Acatalectic: complete, as a verse or a series of feet (Sect: 612. a). Anaclasis: breaking up of rhythm by substituting different measures. Anacrusis: the unaccented syllable or syllables preceding a verse (Sect: 608. g) Antistrophe: a series of verses corresponding to one which has gone before (cf. strophe). Arsis: the unaccented part of a foot (Sect: 611). Basis: a single foot preceding the regular movement of a verse. Cè"sura: the ending of a word within a metrical foot ( Sect: 611. b). Catalectic: see Catalexis. Catalexis: loss of a final syllable (or syllables) making the series catalectic (incomplete, Sect: 612. a). Contraction: the use of one long syllable for two short (Sect: 610). Correption: shortening of a long syllable, for metrical reasons. Diè"resis: the coincidence of the end of a foot with the end of a word within the verse (Sect: 611. c). Dialysis: the use of i (consonant) and v as vowels ( silˆºa = silva, Sect: 603. f. N.4). Diastole: the lengthening of a short syllable by emphasis (Sect: 612. b). Dimeter: consisting of two like measures. Dipody: consisting of two like feet. Distich: a system or series of two verses. Ecthlipsis: the suppression of a final syllable in -m before a word beginning with a vowel (Sect: 612. f.). Elision: the cutting off of a final before a following initial vowel (Sect: 612. e). Heptameter: consisting of seven feet. Hexameter: consisting of six measures. Hexapody: consisting of six feet. Hiatus: the meeting of two vowels without contraction or elision (Sect: 612. g). Ictus: the metrical accent (Sect: 611. a). Irrational: not conforming strictly to the unit of time (Sect: 609. e). Logoaedic: varying in rhythm, making the effect resemble prose (Sect: 623). Monometer: consisting of a single measure. Mora: the unit of time, equal to one short syllable (Sect: 608. a). Pentameter: consisting of five measures. Pentapody: consisting of five feet. Penthemimeris: consisting of five half-feet. Protraction: extension of a syllable beyond its normal length (608. c). Resolution: the use of two short syllables for one long (Sect: 610). Strophe: a series of verses making a recognized metrical whole (stanza), which may be indefinitely repeated. Synè"resis: i (vowel) and u becoming consonants before a vowel (Sect: 603. c. N., f. N.4). Synaleipha: the same as elision (Sect: 612. e. N.). Synapheia: elision between two verses (Sect: 612. e. N.). Syncope: loss of a short vowel. Synizesis: the running together of two vowels without full contraction (Sect: 603 c. N.). Systole: shortening of a syllable regularly long. Tetrameter: consisting of four measures. Tetrapody: consisting of four feet. Tetrastich: a system of four verses. Thesis: the accented part of a foot (Sect: 611). Trimeter: consisting of three measures. Tripody: consisting of three feet. Tristich: a system of three verses. ONEROSI FINIS LABORIS, GAVISUS ABII William Harris |